@article {JRN54180, title = {Criollo cattle: Heritage genetics for arid landscapes}, journal = {Rangelands}, volume = {37}, year = {2015}, month = {04/2015}, pages = {62-67}, chapter = {62}, abstract = {

Thirty cows and three bulls from the Chinipas region in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, were introduced onto the US Department of Agriculture {\textendash} Agricultural Research Service{\textquoteright}s Jornada Experimental Range (JER) in 2005.\  Since then behavioral research has revealed these cattle, most accurately referred to as Raramuri Criollo (RC) cattle, appear well adapted to the harsh and variable climate of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecosystem characterized by abundant woody vegetation and highly variable spatial and temporal precipitation. Observations to date indicate Criollo cattle are thrifty, docile, easy-to-manage, have a long and productive lifespan and require minimal management.\  Research from Arizona suggests Criollo beef is flavorful and equal in tenderness to that of European breeds managed under similar grass-fed production systems.\  The JER is maintaining the pure genetics of RC cattle that have undergone many years of natural selection in Mexico to study their nutritional and behavioral characteristics.\  If these cattle have traits that are desirable in these fragile ecosystems they could have a positive influence on crossbreeding programs for animals destined to dominate arid landscapes.

}, keywords = {dry lands, foraging, livestock, Mexican cattle}, doi = {10.1016/j.rala.2015.01.006}, url = {/files/bibliography/15-010.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richard E. Estell and Amy L. Gonzalez and Andr{\'e}s F. Cibils} } @article {JRN54176, title = {Calculating foraging area using global navigation satellite system (GNSS) technology}, journal = {Rangelands}, year = {2014}, month = {12/2014}, pages = {31-35}, chapter = {31}, abstract = {

Adjusting stocking rate to changing forage conditions is a critical part of pro-active range management. In general stocking rate approaches tend to assume more optimal landscape use patterns than will actually occur. Today we can monitor spatio-temporal landscape use on a 24/7 basis using animals instrumented with global navigation satellite system (GNSS) devices. Sequential 1 sec fixes taken from two cows in two different herds in 2009 and 2011 within a 433-ha arid rangeland paddock provides an example of how GNSS data categorized into stationary, foraging and walking behaviors can be used to calculate a more accurate SR.

}, keywords = {adaptive management, animal behavior, GPS, plant-animal interface, postweaning, preweaning, tracking livestock}, url = {/files/bibliography/14-032.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richard E. Estell and Scott T. Schrader} } @article {JRN53992, title = {Stock density managed in real-time}, volume = {10}, year = {2014}, month = {2014}, pages = {15}, abstract = {

The spatio-temporal management of stocking density will be possible once virtual fencing (VF) becomes a commercial reality.\  VF uses sensory cues (currently audio and electrical stimulation) to change an instrumented animal\&$\#$39;s forward direction of movement.\  Free-ranging cattle instrumented with VF electronics wear hardware that identifies where on the landscape the animal is located, most frequently using the Global Positioning System (GPS).\ \  In addition, Geographic Information System (GIS) hardware and software, also born by the instrumented animal, can be programmed to identify the location of a polygon (paddock) on the landscape. When an instrumented animal attempts to penetrate the polygon\&$\#$39;s perimeter audio and or electrical stimulation cues are administered autonomously to the animal\&$\#$39;s head or neck region to change its forward direction of movement. By ramping the cues from least to most irritating each animal customizes the lowest level of irritation it requires to change its behavior.\  To date research has yet to determine what percent of a herd needs to be instrumented for acceptable control in all landscapes, seasons and with all breeds of animals or how best to generate and store power to keep the animal born electronics functioning for extended periods of time without human intervention.\  Though conventional fencing will never be completely replaced, VF has the potential for holding as well as moving animals over a landscape in real-time.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {JRN53962, title = {Virtual herding for flexible livestock management - a review}, journal = {The Rangeland Journal}, volume = {36}, year = {2014}, month = {06/2014}, pages = {205-221}, chapter = {205}, abstract = {

Free-ranging livestock play a pivotal role globally in the conversion of plant tissue into products and services that support man\’s many and changing lifestyles. With domestication came the task of providing livestock with an adequate plane of nutrition while simultaneously managing vegetation for sustainable production. Attempting to meld these two seemingly opposing management goals continues to be a major focus of rangeland research.\  Demand for multiple goods and services from rangelands today requires that livestock production make the smallest possible \“negative hoofprint.\” Advancements in global navigation satellite system, geographic information system, and electronic/computing technologies, coupled with improved understanding of animal behavior, positions virtual fencing (VF) as an increasingly attractive option for managing free-ranging livestock.\  Virtual fencing offers an alternative to conventional fencing by replacing physical barriers with sensory cues to control an animal\’s forward movement. Currently, audio and electrical stimulation are the cues employed. When VF becomes a commercial reality, manual labor will be replaced in large part with cognitive labor for real-time prescription-based livestock distribution management that is robust, accurate, precise and flexible.\  The goal is to manage rangeland ecosystems optimally for soils, plants, herbivores in addition to the plant and animal\’s microflora. However, maximizing the benefits of VF will require a paradigm shift in management by using VF as a \“virtual herder\” rather than simply as a tool to manage livestock within static physical barriers.

}, keywords = {grazing systems, hoof-action, livestock management, paddocks, pastures, plant-animal interface, rumen dynamics, stocking rate}, doi = {10.1071/RJ13092}, url = {/files/bibliography/14-015.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richard E. Estell and Jerry L. Holechek and S. Ivey and Geoffrey Smith} } @article {49835, title = {Sheep Laterality}, journal = {Laterality}, volume = {18}, year = {2013}, month = {03/2013}, pages = {179-193}, chapter = {179}, abstract = {\  Turning preferences among 309 white-faced ewes were individually evaluated in an enclosed, artificially lit T-maze, followed by each ewe choosing either a right or left return alley to return to peers. Data recorded included time in the start box, time in the T-maze, exit arm chosen to leave the T-maze, and return alley. Right and left arms of the T-maze were chosen 65.7\% and 34.3\% of the time, respectively, while right and left return alleys were chosen 32.4\% and 67.6\%, respectively. Exit arm and return alley were not independently chosen (pB.0001), with observed counts being higher than expected under independence when ewes made the same choice for exit and alley (RR or LL turn patterns) and being lower than expected for alternating choices (RL or LR). Out of the 309 ewes, 28.2\% and 30.1\% chose RR and LL turn patterns, respectively, while 37.5\% chose the RL turn pattern, but only 13 (4.2\%) chose the LR turning pattern. Overall, ewes that initially turned right when presented a second turning opportunity had a slight preference to alternate their turning direction, while ewes that initially turned left tended to continue turning left when given another chance to turn. Exit arm and return alley laterality was not related (a_.05) to time of day the test was administered, ewe\’s age or genetics, most recent liveweight, or most recent shorn fleece weight. The mean time spent in the start box (21 s) was not related to exit arm (p_.947) or return alley (p_.779).\  Mean time (15 s) spent in the T-maze was not related to exit arm (p_.086) or return alley (p_.952). More research will be required to understand sheep turning laterality and how it can impact working facilities and research equipment.}, keywords = {behavioural lateralisation, handedness, livestock behaviour, T-maze}, doi = {10.1080/1357650X.2011.647919}, url = {/files/bibliography/12-008.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and L. W. Murray} } @article {49834, title = {Spatiotemporal cattle data {\textendash} a plea for protocol standardization}, journal = {Positioning}, volume = {4}, year = {2013}, month = {02/2013}, pages = {114-136}, chapter = {114}, abstract = {

It was not until the end of the 1990\’s that animal born satellite receiver\’s catapulted range cattle ecology into the 21st century world of microchip technology with all of its opportunities and challenges.\  With the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) insight into how cattle use a landscape is being revealed from previously secrete temporal and spatial behaviors.\  The most common system to date deployed for studying ungulates is known as the global positioning system (GPS).\  With its use has come a clarity and completeness in documenting spatial and temporal data in new and exciting ways that offer almost unlimited possibilities to better understand and manage both the economic as well as societal returns from animal dominated landscapes required to provide multiple goods and services.\  However, its use on free-ranging cattle is not without challenges, some of which are yet to be optimally solved.\  To maximize the usefulness of GNSS data consideration must be given to: developing a standardized protocol for reporting and analyzing research that facilitates the interpretation of results across different ecosystems, develop optimum ranges over which to collect satellite fixes depending upon the particular behaviors of interest, and concurrently develop electronic hardware and equipment platforms that are easily deployed on animals that are light, robust\  and capable of being worn by cattle for extended periods of time without the need for human intervention especially to change batteries.\  Once the data are collected appropriate geographic information system (GIS) based models should be used to produce a series of visually observable flexible management strategies, some of which may support methodologies that are yet to be commercialized and adopted into future plant-animal interface management routines.

}, keywords = {animal tracking, Cattle behavior, GPS}, doi = {10.4236/pos.2013.41012}, url = {/files/bibliography/13-008.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richard E. Estell and Andr{\'e}s F. Cibils} } @conference {JRN55166, title = { Virtual Fencing-A Corrective or Substantive Paradigm}, booktitle = {4TH AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND SPATIALLY ENABLED LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT SYMPOSIUM }, year = {2013}, month = {9/26/2013}, abstract = {

Grazing and browsing animals play a pivotal role in converting plant tissue into edible as well as non-edible products and services that support man{\textquoteright}s continually changing life styles. With domestication came the task of providing animals an adequate plane of nutrition for growth and reproduction while simultaneously managing vegetation for sustainable production. Attempting to resolve these two seemingly opposing management goals has occupied much of range animal ecology research to date. Today{\textquoteright}s demands for multiple goods and services from rangelands places even more of a focus on bringing about optimum livestock production with the smallest "hoof print" possible. Virtual fencing (VF) is an evolving methodology of animal control that requires at least a rudimentary understanding of the atmospheric sciences, soil science, plant science, animal science, the global navigation satelite system (GNSS), geographic information systems (GIS), ethology and 21st century electronics. Melding these diverse disciplines together to produce a methodology for controlling free-ranging animals stands out as holding much promise for managing animal dominated landscapes. When VF becomes a commercial reality the use of manual labor to control livestock will largely be replaced with cognitive labor that will result in prescription based livestock management that is robust, accurate, precise and flexible. By managing the spatio-temporal aspects of foraging in real-time controlled utilization of vegetation will be possible with prescription like precision. The end result will be ecosystem management capable of providing optimum plant as well as realistic growing conditions for animals without detracting from the additional demands being placed on rangelands today for goods and services beyond just providing nutrition for free-ranging livestock and wildlife. The methodology of VF should not be viewed as simply a new tool to caITy on current management but rather it offers the possibility of providing the basis for a new paradigm shift in managing stocking density in real-time. This approach to livestock management can be thought of as "virtual shepherding" for the 21st century.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {49869, title = {Characterising the spatial and temporal activities of free-ranging cows from GPS data}, journal = {The Rangeland Journal}, volume = {34}, year = {2012}, month = {06/2012}, pages = {149-161}, chapter = {149}, abstract = {

Electronic tracking provides a unique way to document animal behavior on a continuous basis.\  This manuscript describes how uncorrected 1 s GPS fixes can be used to characterize the rate of cow travel (m{\textperiodcentered}s-1) into stationary, foraging and walking activities.\  Cows instrumented with GPS devices were observed; and the beginning and ending times of the above activities were recorded.\  Data were collected across a number of days and among a number of cows in order to calculate a mean travel rate for each activity.\  GPS data were also collected when observers were absent from the paddock and these data were then characterized into the three activities based on rate of travel determined between consecutive GPS fixes.\  The activities were further characterized within a 24 h period based on the sun{\textquoteright}s angle with respect to the horizon.\  GPS data were analyzed from four cows (two in 2009 and two in 2011) and collected for four consecutive 24 h periods before weaning and seven similar time intervals following weaning.\  Weaning took place in March each year around mid-day when calves were between 223 and 234 days of age.\  These data suggest abrupt weaning caused cows to change their spatial and temporal behavior not only among but also within days.\  Overall cow travel increased (p = 0.0093) post-weaning with subtle within day behavioral changes.\  Further testing will be required to substantiate the biological implication of spatial and temporal cattle behavioral changes when developing optimum proactive husbandry practices for managing cow dominated landscapes.

}, keywords = {foraging, geospatial data, livestock, travel, weaning behaviour}, doi = {dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ11062}, url = {/files/bibliography/12-013.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Craig Winters and Richard E. Estell and E.L. Fredrickson and Marek Doniec and Detweiler, C. and D. Rus and D. K. James and B. Nolen} } @article {JRN54555, title = {GPS/GIS technology in range cattle management}, journal = {Journal of Animal Science}, volume = {90, supple 3/J . }, year = {2012}, month = {07/2012}, chapter = {p. 426}, abstract = {Animal dominated landscapes are dynamic and not fully understood. Electronics were first employed in the mid-1970{\textquoteright}s to monitor free-ranging cattle behavior and its impact on forage utilization. By the mid-90{\textquoteright}s satellite positioning systems were being used to monitor wildlife and had all but removed human observation from animal tracking. However, not until the end of the 90{\textquoteright}s did animal born satellite receiver{\textquoteright}s catapult range cattle management into the world of microchip technology. This advent eliminated some challenges associated with terrestrial based systems but added others not the least of which has been how best to provide sustained power to animal born electronics. This question caused a conundrum for researchers deciding how to balance data collection rates with battery power drain since satellite based systems have the potential to collect data in fractions of a second. To assist in interpreting the vast reservoirs of time-stamped positional data available, researchers began looking to biotic and abiotic information in the vicinity of the animal{\textquoteright}s geographical location to help explain the animal{\textquoteright}s behavior. Enter the Geographic Information System (GIS) with its origins in the late 50{\textquoteright}s and 60{\textquoteright}s. It provides hardware and software capable of capturing, storing, retrieving, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced data. By combining GIS and Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite data researchers were given a robust way to accurately associate possible cause and affect relationships. Because of the complexity associated with electronically obtained data, it is mandatory that multifaceted teams be established from the onset not only to keep electronics operational but to optimize the design, gathering, summarization, analyses, interpretation and application of data. Though electronics have replaced the drudgery and incompleteness of manual data gathering, electronics should never be used in an attempt to replace the art of human observation and discernment that ultimately provides the interpretation and application of field based management.}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {49870, title = {Managing livestock using animal behavior: Mixed-species stocking and flerds}, journal = {Animal}, year = {2012}, month = {02/2012}, pages = {1-11}, chapter = {1}, abstract = {Mixed-species stocking can foster sound landscape management while offering economic and ecological advantages compared to mono-species stocking.\  Producers contemplating a mixed-species enterprise should reflect on several considerations before implementing this animal management strategy.\  Factors applicable to a particular producer\’s landscape must be considered together with goals and economic constraints before implementing mixed-species stocking.\  A major consideration when using mixed-species stocking is how to deal with predation losses, especially among small ruminants.\  An approach being adopted in some commercial operations capitalizes on using innate animal behaviors to form cohesive groups of two or more livestock species that consistently remain together under free-ranging conditions.\  These groups are referred to as flerds.\  The mixing of a flock of sheep and/or goats with a herd of cattle into a flerd has been shown to protect sheep and goats from coyote predation as well as offering other husbandry advantages.\  Some of the added advantages include more efficient conversion of forage into animal protein.\  Creation of flerds, their maintenance and advantages are discussed.}, keywords = {animal behavior, bonding, livestock, predation}, doi = {10.1017/s175173111200016x}, url = {/files/bibliography/12-006.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and E.L. Fredrickson and Richard E. Estell} } @article {49919, title = {Differentiating among plant spectra by combining pH dependent photoluminescence spectroscopy with multi-way principal component analysis (MPCA)}, journal = {The Open Agriculture Journal}, volume = {5}, year = {2011}, pages = {1-9}, chapter = {1}, abstract = {

Photoluminescence spectroscopic probes offer the potential for real-time measurements of animal diet composition. Spectral emission signatures (excitation at 365 nm) from three different pH (2.2, 7.5 and 12.5) phosphate buffered saline (PBS) extracts from two grasses, Sporobolus flexuosus (Thurb. ex Vasey) Rydb., [mesa dropseed], and Pleuraphis mutica Buckley [tobosa], two forbs, Dimorphocarpa wislizenii (Engelm.) Rollins [spectacle pod], and Sphaeralcea incana Torrey [pale globemallow], and leaves and twigs from two shrubs Flourensia cernua DC. [tarbush], and Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt., [fourwing saltbush] were examined. Since pH has been shown to be pivotal in affecting extraction efficiency of other plant compounds pH seemed appropriate as an additional dimension within our multi-way principal component analysis (MPCA) to differentiate among six different plant species. In particular, MPCA allowed differentiation between Sporobolus and Pleuraphis that was not possible using only principal component analysis (PCA). This research suggests MPCA may be a more appropriate tool than PCA when attempting to discriminate among plant species.

}, keywords = {botanical composition, chemometrics, fluorescence, luminescence, phosphate buffered saline (PBS)}, doi = {10.2174/1874331501105010001 }, url = {/files/bibliography/11-005.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and T.L. Danielson and S. Obeidat and G.D. Rayson and Richard E. Estell and B. Bai and E.L. Fredrickson} } @proceedings {49920, title = {Tools to study and manage grazing behavior at multiple scales to enhance the sustainability of livestock production systems}, volume = {IX}, year = {2011}, month = {04/2011}, pages = {559-564}, publisher = {International Rangeland Congress}, address = {Rosario, Argentina}, abstract = {

Key points

1. A {\textquotedblleft}single tool{\textquotedblright} for studying free-ranging animal behavior on complex landscapes does not exist.

2. Today{\textquoteright}s tools require competent multiple disciplinary teams beginning with the planning and design of experiments on through to applying the results within a practical management framework.

3. Research that involves instrumenting animals must be conducted in a human manner that accurately measures and or manages the phenomenon in question.

4. Using innate animal behaviors to accomplish management goals by melding biology with electronics to optimize ecological and labor efficiency is the future and virtual fencing will soon be one of the tools.

Introduction: Tracking animals is not new, early hunters practiced it for survival (Liebenberg, 2006); however, today it is practiced in the name of science and what the future holds will be new (Etcgroup., 2004). The phrase {\textquotedblleft}if you can measure it, you can manage it{\textquotedblright} may have first been used in the health care industry (Kinex IHA Corp., 2000). Nevertheless, this axiom is pivotal to range animal ecology involving measuring and managing free-ranging animal distribution, a central tenant of grazing management (Bailey and Brown, 2011). Free-ranging livestock neither use all the space made available to them (Anderson et al., 2003; Rinella et al., 2011) nor do they use it in a random manner (Anderson et al, 2011a). Over 68 factors (Anderson, 2010) including magnetism(Begall et al., 2008) appear to impact landscape use by free-ranging animals. Thus understanding the process of foraging is challenging and may require research programs that de-emphasize traditional methods (Laca, 2009).

}, keywords = {bio-logging, GPS, telemetry, virtual fencing}, url = {/files/bibliography/11-018.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @proceedings {JRN54590, title = {Using time-series intervention analysis to model cow heart rate affected by programmed audio and environmental/physiological}, volume = {CDROM}, year = {2011}, month = {05/2011}, publisher = {Applied Statistics In Agriculture Conference}, address = {Manhattan, KS}, abstract = {This research is the first use of the Box-Jenkins time-series models to describe changes in heart rate (HR) of free-ranging crossbred cows (Bos taurus) receiving both programmed audio cues from directional virtual fencing (DVFTM) devices and non-programmed environmental/physiological cues. The DVFTM device is designed to control the animal{\textquoteright}s location on the landscape. Polar Accurex{\textregistered} devices were used to capture HR every minute between 19 and 24 March 2003, when three mature free-ranging beef cows, previously habituated to the DVFTM device, were confined to a brush-infested area of an arid rangeland paddock. Global positioning system (GPS) electronics were used to record each cow{\textquoteright}s location approximately every minute while it was in a 58 ha virtual paddock (VPTM) and every second when it penetrated a virtual boundary (VBTM). The cows never escaped through the VBTM, although they penetrated it a total of 26 times in 11 different events, at which times they received programmed audio cues lasting from 1 to 56 s. Plots of these data reveal that HR spikes from programmed audio cues all fell within textbook range for cow HR (40-186 beats per minute, bpm). Heart rate spikes were analyzed using Box-Jenkins intervention analysis models, which showed that for both audio and selected environmental/physiological events, HR spikes typically returned to pre-cuing "baseline" levels in about one minute. However, the longest return-time to baseline (about four minutes) was for an environmental/physiological event of unknown origin. HR, animal location, weather and other electronic data should be measured at equally-spaced time intervals using a single time stamp to accurately associate HR changes with possible causes.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and N. Remenyi and L. W. Murray} } @proceedings {50010, title = {Characterizing foraging patterns among cattle and bonded and non- bonded small ruminants using spatial point process techniques}, year = {2010}, month = {2010}, pages = {12-35}, publisher = {Kansas State University}, address = {Manhattan, Kansas}, abstract = {

Two mixed-species livestock groups were monitored while foraging on 410 ha of brush-infested Southern New Mexico rangeland during July and August 1988. The groups consisted of crossbred Bos taurus and Bos indicus beef cattle with white-faced sheep (Ovis aries) and mohair goats (Capra hircus).\  The bonded group consisted of small ruminants that had their behaviours modified through socialization with cattle to form a flerd in which small ruminants consistently remained near cattle.\  Small ruminants in the non-bonded group had not been socialized with cattle.\  A subset of animal location data measured during the morning over five days for both the bonded and non-bonded groups was analyzed for spatial patterns.\  Only data for five morning periods (0700-0800 h) are reported because morning and afternoon spatial patterns were similar.\  Distance measures and Monte Carlo simulations for spatial point processes were used to analyze the data.\  Results suggested bonded and non-bonded groups were similar in spatial patterns of intra-specific distances for both cattle and small ruminants.\  However, bonding changed the repulsive relationship observed between cattle and non-bonded small ruminants stocked together to one of inter-specific attraction.\  Bonded small ruminants remained close to and formed inter-specific clusters with cattle.\  In addition, the mean number of bonded small ruminants near an arbitrary cow was consistently high.\  Finally, the spatial pattern of cattle across the paddock did not differ between bonded and non-bonded groups, while bonded small ruminants tended to disperse slightly more uniformly across the paddock than did non-bonded small ruminants. These findings suggest paddock utilization may be positively influenced using flerds compared to flocks and herds.

}, keywords = {animal disribution, animal locations, cattle, flerds, goats, mixed-species stocking, sheep}, url = {/files/bibliography/10-046.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Murray, Leight M. and Sun, P. and E.L. Fredrickson and Richard E. Estell and V.B. Nakamatsu} } @conference {JRN54461, title = {Free-ranging cow behavior pre and post-weaning}, booktitle = {63rd Society for Range Management Annual Meetings}, year = {2010}, month = {02/2010}, publisher = {Sociiety for Range Management}, organization = {Sociiety for Range Management}, address = {Denver, CO}, abstract = {

The optimum husbandry of free-ranging cattle requires not only nutritional knowledge but also an understanding of how to manage and use behavioral information.\  With the advent of global positioning technology (GPS) it is now possible to monitor animal travel with relative ease over extended periods of time without the observer influencing the observation.\  Between March and April 2009 five cows in each of two similar large ({\textthreesuperior} 433 ha) arid rangeland pastures were individually monitored at a 1 Hz rate before as well as following weaning.\  The ten cows ranged in age between three and fifteen years with six of the cows suckling male calves while the remaining four calves were female.\  Accelerometer and magnetometer data used to quantify foraging and non-foraging behaviors together with animal travel will be discussed in light of directional virtual fencing (DVFTM) hardware and software that was used to obtain the data.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Craig Winters and Marek Doniec and D. Rus and B. Nolen} } @conference {JRN54462, title = {Geospatial methods and data analysis for assessing distribution of grazing livestock }, booktitle = {4th Grazing Livestock Nutrition Conference }, year = {2010}, month = {07/2010}, address = {Estes Park, CO}, abstract = {

Free-ranging livestock research must begin with a well conceived problem statement and employ appropriate data acquisition tools and analytical techniques to accomplish the research objective.\  These requirements are especially critical in addressing animal distribution.\  Tools and statistics used to describe the plant-livestock interface must consider that foraging is highly place dependent, foraging is not a random process and livestock foraging mainly occurs in groups.\  Since animal movement implies consecutive locations, each the result of a host of interactions between the animal and its surroundings, classical agronomic statistics may not provide the optimum analytical tools to address spatially related phenomena. By far the greatest amount of research on quantitative tools to understand the use of space by animals has come from the wildlife community and more recently from ecologists exploring the distribution of both animal and plant species over large geographic areas.\  However, interest in geospatial data analysis methods is also found among animal-range scientists, primarily because new electronic technologies make it possible to accumulate data from free-ranging animals in seconds or less.\  Therefore, the rate at which data can now be collected produces inordinate amounts of information that must be correctly analyzed. Consecutive animal locations on a landscape are not statistically independent; therefore, autocorrelation is no longer a theoretical but real concern and must be addressed in animal distribution analyses.\  This paper presents an overview of research that affects landscape use together with possible geospatial tools that can be used when evaluating free-ranging animal distributions.\  Geospatial methodology is not trivial nor is it a mature field, but rather is evolving; therefore, the range-animal scientist should work as a team member with other disciplines including but not limited to statisticians, modelers, computer scientists, cognitive scientists, physicists, sociologists, and possibly geographers when attempting to understand animal distribution.\  Literature referenced in this paper is comprehensive in breath but not exhaustive in detail and thus serves as a beginning point for those wanting to know what has already been researched concerning livestock distribution on landscapes.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {JRN54463, title = {Spatial and temporal free-ranging cow behaviour pre and post-weaning}, booktitle = {4th Grazing Livestock Nutrition Conference}, year = {2010}, month = {07/2010}, address = {Estes Park, CO}, abstract = {

Global positioning system (GPS) technology can be used to study free-ranging cow behaviors. GPS equipment was deployed on each of ten cows ranging in age from 3 to 15 years in order to compare and contrast mean {\textpm} standard errors for pre- and post-weaning travel (m.time-1) in two similar (<= 433 ha) arid rangeland paddocks.\  Data were collected at a rate of one position fix per second between 12 March and 8 April 2009 for a total of 8.7 million raw GPS fixes across both paddocks.\  In addition, all 10 instrumented cows, 5 per paddock, were observed for a total of 32 h across 13 d and their behaviors were recorded on a minute by minute basis during daylight.\  The observational data were used to classify rate of travel (m.min-1) into walking, foraging and stationary behaviors. The observed behavioral data were merged with the GPS data.\  Next the merged data were examined to classify the GPS data by path speed (m.s-1).\  Intervals of 30 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s were evaluated to determine the optimum path speed sampling period to discriminate among walking, foraging and stationary behavior.\  The path speed associated with {\textquotedblleft}stationary{\textquotedblright} was due to the inherent variability within the uncorrected GPS data used in this study.\  Regardless of interval chosen, three distinct peaks were observed.\  Within the ranges evaluated, longer sampling intervals (180 s) appeared to show better peak definition, especially for those peaks associated with foraging (0.10 m.s-1) and {\textquotedblleft}stationary{\textquotedblright} (0.03 m.s-1) behaviors.\  Shorter sampling periods (30 s) produced smother curves having less distinct peaks, probably as a result of more samples.\  The fastest movement had a peak at 1.00 m.s-1 and corresponded to periods when the cows were observed to be traveling between points on the landscape. A 1.00 m.s-1 rate of travel is roughly 2.2 miles per hour, a speed used to manually gather these cows.\  Subsequent analyses were performed using 60 s sampling intervals as a compromise for well defined peaks and troughs, smoothness of the curve, and relatively high frequency counts at the high speed end of the distribution. Overall, mean cow travel increased post-weaning over 5 d in Paddock 10B from 1,428 {\textpm} 92.6 m.d-1 to 1,955 {\textpm} 143.4 m.d-1 and over 8 d post-weaning in Paddock 14A from 1,166 {\textpm} 105.8 m.d-1\  to 1,509 {\textpm} 92.0 m.d-1. Mean travel in the two paddocks during foraging both pre- and post-weaning varied within a day but not in an identical manner even though the two paddocks were similar in size and topography.\  Among four 6 h time intervals foraging travel decreased following weaning between 0600 h (6 am) and noon and between 1800 h (6 pm) and midnight in both paddocks while travel associated with foraging increased between noon and 1800 h (6 pm) in both paddocks.\  Foraging travel between midnight and 0600 h (6 am) decreased in Paddock 10B following weaning (64 {\textpm} 5.6 m.6h-1 vs 42 {\textpm} 4.4 m.6h-1) but increased in Paddock 14A (24 {\textpm} 6.6 m.6h-1 vs 60 {\textpm} 7.3 m.6h-1) during this same time interval following weaning.\  Differences in foraging travel between midnight and 0600 h (6 am) in the two paddocks may have resulted from several factors including: the number of non-instrumented cows being different in the two paddocks, different weaning dates 13 d apart, and a different spatial distribution of cows within each paddock.\  Furthermore, GPS data were lost possibly due to battery failure.\  Only one 24 h period of data were lost from one cow in Paddock 10B (post-weaning) compared to loss of GPS data from two and three of the five cows for 24 h pre- and post-weaning, respectively, in Paddock 14A.\  Further data analysis evaluating tortuosity of travel (a metric that relates path speed or the summation of distances between each of 60 positions within a minute to displacement speed the distance between only the first position and the 60th position within a minute) appears promising to further characterize free-ranging cow travel. pg 192.
.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Craig Winters and Marek Doniec and Detweiler, C. and D. Rus and B. Nolen} } @proceedings {49917, title = {Using time-series intervention analysis to model cow heart rate affected by programmed audio and environmental/physiological cues}, year = {2010}, note = {Original journal Applied Animal Behavior (rejected) - change to Physiology \& Behavior10/12/2007 resbumitted to Livestock Science}, month = {2010}, pages = {107-136}, publisher = {Kansas State University}, address = {Manhattan, Kansas}, abstract = {

This research is the first attempt at using time -series analysis to describe changes in the heart rate (HR) of free-ranging cows receiving programmed audio cues from directional virtual fencing (DVF\™) devices designed to control the animal\&$\#$39;s location on the landscape as well as non-programmed environmental/physiological cues. Polar Accurex\® devices were used to capture HR every minute between March 19-24, 2003 when three mature free-ranging beef cows previously habituated to DVF\™ control were confined to a brush-infested area of an arid rangeland paddock. Global positioning system (GPS)electronics were used to locate each cow\&$\#$39;s location approximately every minute while it was in a 58 ha virtual paddock (VP\™) and every second when it penetrated a virtual boundary (VB\™). The cows never escaped through the VB\™ though they penetrated it a total of 26 times in 11 different events at which time they received programmed audio cues lasting from 1 to 56 s. These data reveal that HR spikes from programmed audio cues all fell within the textbook range for cow HR (40-186 beats per minute, bpm). For both audio and selected evironmental /physiological events, HR spikes returned to pre-cuing \"baseline\" values in about one minute. However, the longest return time to baseline lasted (about 4 minutes) and this was for an environmental/physiological event. HR, animal location, weather and other electronic data should be measured at equally-spaced time intervals using a single time stamp so as to accurately associate HR changes with possible causes.

}, keywords = {audio cue, direction virtual fencing, DVM, free-ranging beef cattle, heart rate, Polar hear rate monitors, time-series analysis}, url = {/files/bibliography/10-045.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and N. Remenyi and L. W. Murray} } @conference {JRN54153, title = {Adapting livestock behaviour to achieve management goals}, booktitle = {Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture }, year = {2009}, month = {06/2009}, address = {Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan}, abstract = {

Using livestock to efficiently achieve management goals requires melding animal behavior with mechanical and electronic equipment.\  Practices such as autonomously obtaining individual animal liveweight when combined with individual animal electronic identification can produce numerous cost saving advantages by bringing together cause and effect events in a meaningful time frame that allows for proactive management intervention.\  Other technologies such as fluorometry makes it possible to rapidly determine what free-ranging animals are eating including those plants that may be toxic to an animal\&$\#$39;s health.\  Soon virtual fencing will be commercially available making the spatial and temporal control of animals in real time a reality. All of these evolving technologies when used appropriately will foster low stress animal handling, the keystone in realizing optimum free-ranging animal management goals.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {JRN54154, title = {The art in getting flocks and herds to flerds}, booktitle = {Symposium Series. Multi-Species Grazing}, year = {2009}, month = {06/2009}, address = {Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan}, abstract = {

Flerds (small ruminants that consistently stay near cattle under free-ranging conditions) offer four distinct advantages over stocking simply flocks and herds to carry out mixed species stocking.\  One of the main advantages flerds offer is added protection from canine predation, reduced time in locating mixed-species groups, the control of small ruminants without conventional net wire fencing and the ability to foster uniform stocking pressure over the landscape during foraging.\  Though flerds are created by socializing large and small ruminants through a continuous close association either in pens or in the field, there are distinct practices to insure cohesive and enduring flerds including preventing physical abusiveness directed to the small ruminants from cattle.\ \  The art and science associated with realizing successful bonding that results in enduring flerds requires observing and immediately altering animal behaviors and management practices that would prevent or alter interspecific bonds from developing.

}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @inbook {50068, title = {Behaviour - The keystone in optimizing free-ranging ungulate production}, booktitle = {Encycloedia of Life Suport Systems (EOLSS)}, year = {2009}, publisher = {Eolss Publishers}, organization = {Eolss Publishers}, chapter = {12}, address = {Oxford, UK}, abstract = {Free-ranging animal behaviour is a keystone to optimizing free-ranging domestic animal production. This chapter focuses on several aspects that emanate from foraging including defining terms, concepts and the complexity that underlie managing animals and landscapes. Behaviour is investigated in light of individuals as well as groups and the key role plant chemistry plays in the foraging process. Ethics and animal welfare, especially in terms of low-stress management strategies, are discussed in terms of production in 21st century range animal ecology. A section on melding animals and machines stress how using innate animal behaviour in order to realize management goals is a win -win for both humans and animals as long as the final judgments that must be made in management of biological resources are not replaced by technology alone. The final section of this chapter stresses the importance of using today\’s technology together with animal husbandry to optimize range animal ecology in the 21st century.}, keywords = {behaviour, free-ranging}, url = {/files/bibliography/09-034.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richard E. Estell} } @conference {50066, title = {Free-ranging cow behavior pre and post-weaning}, booktitle = {Society for Range Management Meeting Abstracts}, year = {2009}, abstract = {The optimum husbandry of free-ranging cattle requires not only nutritional knowledge but also an understanding of how to manage and use behavioral information. With the advent of global positioning technology (GPS) it is now possible to monitor animal travel with relative ease over extended periods of time without the observer influencing the observation. Between March and April 2009 five cows in each of two similar large (? 433 ha) arid rangeland pastures were individually monitored at a 1 Hz rate before as well as following weaning. The ten cows ranged in age between three and fifteen years with six of the cows suckling male calves while the remaining four calves were female. Accelerometer and magnetometer data used to quantify foraging and non-foraging behaviors together with animal travel will be discussed in light of directional virtual fencing (DVF{\texttrademark}) hardware and software that was used to obtain the data.}, keywords = {free-ranging}, author = {D.M. Anderson and R. Libeau and D. Rus and Detweiler, C. and B. Nolen} } @conference {50067, title = {Gathering cows using virtual fencing methodologies}, booktitle = {62nd Society for Range Management Annual Meeting}, year = {2009}, month = {02/2009}, pages = {2030-4}, address = {Albuquerque, NM}, abstract = {

Free-ranging livestock are classically controlled by herders. Holding, moving, or gathering free-ranging cattle requires flexible husbandry practices for efficient and effective low-stress animal management. Behavioral theory and practical experience indicates cattle can be taught to respond to auditory cues. Preliminary research has demonstrated that cows can be gathered autonomously using recorded audio cues associated with manual gathering. However, efficient gathering requires movement in the proper direction. Therefore, we believe using audio cues administered from directional virtual fencing (DVF\™) equipment can facilitate proper animal orientation and facilitate the gathering of animals with minimal human intervention. Results from applying directional audio cues to free-ranging cows using hard- and software developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) will be discussed in light of how many animals in a herd potentially need to be instrumented in order to successfully gather the entire group.

}, keywords = {DVF, free-ranging, SRM}, author = {D.M. Anderson and D. Rus} } @proceedings {50158, title = {Fluorometry - an evolving methodology for range animal ecologist}, volume = {1}, year = {2008}, month = {July 1, 2008}, pages = {572}, publisher = {Guangdong People{\textquoteright}s Publishing House}, address = {Hohhot, China}, abstract = {Fluorometry is an optically based technique that has only recently (1996) been shown to be useful in identifying pre-as well as post-digested plant material found in free-ranging animal diets. This article traces the evolution of this methodology as a tool to determine the botanical composition, a key to understanding and subsequently managing range animal ecology. Several instruments have successfully been used as sources of illumination including a neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet laser, Xenon-arc lamps and most recently light emitting diodes (LED{\textquoteright}s). Furthermore, several organic and inorganic solvents have been used to extract fluorophores principally in the blue, green and red regions of the visible spectrum. The resulting data from the emission spectrums produced have been analyzed in a variety of ways to establish statistical differences among plant species and mixtures with multi-way principal component analysis (MPCA) appearing to hold the greatest promise in teasing apart differences among species and specie mixtures that have visually similar spectral signatures.}, keywords = {digested, fluorometry, free-ranging}, author = {D.M. Anderson and G.D. Rayson} } @proceedings {50157, title = {Husbandry of free-ranging cows using virtual fencing concepts}, volume = {1}, year = {2008}, month = {June 30 - July 5}, pages = {660}, publisher = {Guangdong People{\textquoteright}s Publishing House}, address = {Hohhot, China}, abstract = {A directional virtual fencing (DVF{\texttrademark}) system approach employing 1 Hz GPS data acquisition and using audio cuing only was successfully used to gather mature free-ranging beef cattle from a 466 ha arid brush infested rangeland paddock into a corral in which drinking water was located . Gathering was conducted during five random morning and five random afternoon times over a two week period not corresponding to when the cattle would normally enter the corral. Their normal time to enter the corral was determined by a one week pre-trial for each group during which time the animal{\textquoteright}s normal time to enter the corral was recorded. The audio cues consisted of a human voice and those sounds coming from an all-terain vehicle (ATV) that had previousl been recorded during one of the manual gathering/training sessions. The treated cattle had previously been habituated to being gathered by a technician riding an ATV and once the cows arrived at the corral they were given a small amont of protein supplement and immediate access to drinking water. In contrast, a similar group of cattle not accustomed to being gathered using this protocol but trained to wear the electronic equipment package as well as eat protein supplement were subjected to autonomous gathering. This study demonstrated the feasability of using electronic equipment together with a food reward in order to autonomously gather free-ranging cows.}, keywords = {free-ranging, GPS, virtual fencing}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {50308, title = {Virtual Fencing - past, present and future}, journal = {The Rangeland Journal}, volume = {29}, year = {2007}, month = {June 15, 2007}, pages = {65-78}, publisher = {CSIRO Publishing}, abstract = {Virtual fencing is a method of controlling animals without ground based natural or man made structures. Control occurs by altering an animal\&$\#$39;s behavior through one or more sensory cues administered to the animal after it has attempted to penetrate an electronically generated 2-dimensional boundary. This boundary can be any geometrical shape, and though unseen by the eye, is detected by an electronic computer system worn by the animal. Autonomous programmable systems use an electronic signal, most commonly from the Global Positioning System (GPS) of satellites that emit electronic signals in the radio frequency (RF) range. Algorithms within a Geographic Information System (GIS) within the computer system worn by the animal use these data to determine if a cue should be applied and if so what cue(s), where on the body the cues should be applied and for how long. The first commercial virtual fencing system, patented in 1973 for controlling domestic dogs, was successfully used in 1987 to contain goats in the first experiment to control livestock using virtual fencing. Since then researchers using commercial as well as custom designed systems have successfully demonstrated that virtual fencing can successfully hold as well as move livestock over the landscape (proof-of-concept). Commercial virtual livestock control systems do not yet exist; however, research in Australia and the United States continues toward this goal. Pending research needs relating to this method of animal control are discussed in light of the currently available technologies.}, keywords = {animal tracking, biotelemetry systems, Directional Virtual Fencing, dog training collars, DVFTM, electronic fences, Global Positioning System, GPS}, url = {/files/bibliography/07-018.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {50405, title = {Use of fluorometry to differentiate among clipped species in the Genera, Astragalus, Oxytropis and Pleuraphis}, journal = {Rangeland Ecology and Management}, volume = {59}, year = {2006}, month = {September 2006}, pages = {557-563}, abstract = {A rapid and reproducible method to determine botanical composition of forage is an ecological and economic goal for range animal ecologists. Multidimensional fluorometry previously demonstrated the possibility of a unique optical approach for accurately determining species composition of pre- and post-digested plant materials. Fluorometry may be used to detect toxic plants in standing crop as well as diets by using electronic transitions in chemical structures at wavelengths between 370 and 580 nm. Grass hay (genus Pleuraphis) and six clipped forbs (four species of Astragalus and two species of Oxytropis) were examined. The resulting spectral signatures were evaluated for differences in the blue and green regions of the visible spectrum using Principle Component Analysis (PCA). This represents the first published data using chemometrics to differentiate among fluorophores from these plant extracts. It was possible to distinguish between the grass and forbs and among forbs. Further research will be required to evaluate these same plant species in mixed diets and fecal samples. http://www.srmjournals.org/archive/1551-5028/59/5/pdf/i1551-5028-59-5-557.pdf}, keywords = {astragalus, botanical composition, fluorescence spectroscopy, fluorometry, genera, oxytropis, pleuraphis, poisonous plants, Principal Component Analysis (PCA)}, url = {/files/bibliography/06-036.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and G.D. Rayson and S. Obeidat and M. Ralphs and Richard E. Estell and E.L. Fredrickson and E. Parker and Gray, P.} } @proceedings {50406, title = {Virtual Fencing - A Concept into Reality}, year = {2006}, month = {June 14-15, 2006}, pages = {61-91}, address = {Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia}, abstract = {Virtual fencing is a method of controlling animals without ground based, natural or man made structures. Control occurs by altering an animal{\textquoteright}s behavior through one or more sensory cues administered to the animal after it has attempted to penetrate an electronically generated 3-dimensional boundary. This boundary can be any geometrical shape, and though unseen by the eye, is detected by an electronic computer system worn by the animal. Autonomous programmable systems use an electronic signal, most commonly from the Global Positioning System (GPS) of satellites that emanate electronic signals in the radio frequency (RF) range. Algorithms within a Geographic Information System (GIS) use these data to determine if a cue should be applied and if so what cue(s), where on the body the cues should be applied and for how long. The first commercial virtual fencing system, patented in 1973 for controlling domestic dogs, was successfully used in 1987 to contain goats in the first experiment to control livestock using virtual fencing. Since then researchers using commercial as well as custom designed systems have successfully demonstrated proof-of-concept that virtual fencing can successfully hold as well as move livestock over the landscape. Commercial virtual livestock control systems do not yet exist; however, research in Australia and the United States continues toward this goal. Pending research needs relating to this method of animal control are discussed in light of currently available technologies.}, keywords = {controlling animals, virtual fencing}, url = {/files/bibliography/06-073Proc.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {50526, title = {Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF TM) and its Impact on the Paradigm of Free-Ranging Animal Control}, booktitle = {Annual Conference of the Quivira Coalition Proceedings}, year = {2005}, month = {January 13-15, 2}, pages = {43}, publisher = {Quivira Caolition}, organization = {Quivira Caolition}, address = {Albuquerque, NM}, abstract = {Melding time-tested animal husbandary practices with cutting-edge technological advances and scientific breakthroughs coming from the disciplines of range, animal and ethological sciences provides an exciting platform from which to address free-ranging animal control in the 21st century. Decades of agricultural research have consistently revealed that flexibility is the first key in the proper management of complex biological systems. However, some tools that are available in rangeland management thwart flexibility and conventional fencing can sometimes fit into this category. Where legal as well as health and safety issues are of paramount concern in controlling animals, conventional fences are the tool of choice and will remain so well into the foreseeable future. However, where adaptive management is the goal, new tools such as Directional Virtual Fencing (DVFTM) will provide flexible animal control within a sound ecological framework. This methodology capitalizes on using animal behavior to attain spatial and temporal management goals focused on optimizing both plant and animal productivity. Workshop participants will learn what DVFTM is and how it differs from conventional methods of controlling free-ranging animals with particular emphasis on when, where and by whom DVFTM should be used when it becomes commercially available. Results from previous and ongoing studies in which Virtual Boundaries (VBTM) are being used to control animal groups will be discussed. A final focus will be to highlight researchable areas that currently remain unanswered concerning virtual animal control. The goal of this workshop is to expand our view of foraging from not only a process but to a potentially useful tool for carrying out rangeland remediation.}, keywords = {animals, directional virtual, fencing, free-ranging}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {50529, title = {Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF{\texttrademark}) and flerds}, booktitle = {58th Annual Meeting Society for Range Management}, year = {2005}, month = {February 5, 2005}, address = {Fort Worth, Texas}, abstract = {Controlling free-ranging animals is among the most challenging jobs a producer faces when managing livestock. Combining a practical understanding of animal behavior with emerging technologies provides opportunities to autonomously control the temporal and spatial location of cattle and sheep on arid rangelands without conventional fencing. Flerd refers to a mixed species group of sheep (flock) and cattle (herd) in which sheep consistently remain within line-of-sight of cattle even when given the opportunity to remain only with peers. This atypical sheep behavior results from modifying sheep behavior, preferably at an early age, through a process called bonding. Using Directional Virtual Fencing (DVFTM), which delivers audio sound and/or electric shock cues to either the right or left side of a cow{\textquoteright}s head, it was possible to contain cattle behind an activated Virtual Boundary (VBTM) that defines the perimeter of a Virtual Paddock (VPTM) using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. Peer relationships among and between individual sheep affected flerd cohesiveness when combining bonded sheep with cows equipped with DVFTM devices. Preliminary results indicate three cows wearing DVFTM devices influenced the spatial location of 13 ewes and 1 wether.}, keywords = {cattle, Directional Virtual Fencing, flerds, free-ranging animals, sheep}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Nayak, P. and B. Nolen and E.L. Fredrickson and Richard E. Estell and C.S. Hale and Kris Havstad} } @conference {50531, title = {Innovation and Opportunities in Livestock Control using Virtual Boundaries (VBS TM)}, booktitle = {Proceedings International Conference on Agricultural Science and Technology}, year = {2005}, month = {April 26-29, 200}, pages = {29-30}, address = {Venture, California}, abstract = {Control, in the context of managing free-ranging animals, most assuredly conjures up thoughts of conventional fencing. Substitute the term conventional fencing with Virtual Boundary (VB\™) and you are catapulted into the space age where electronic control of innate animal behaviors has been developed into a patented methodology termed Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF\™). DVF\™ provides a low stress, highly flexible, autonomous method of controlling free-ranging animals. The control of animals behind an invisible barrier originated in the mid 1970\’s with small area pet containment systems. However, during the late 1960\’s and early 1970\’s the Global Positioning System (GPS) of navigation satellites deployed by the US military resulted in a key piece of technology for DVF\™ animal control. On April 2, 2002, the first observation of a free-ranging beef cow controlled using DVF\™ was recorded. Since then the US Department of Agriculture research on the Jornada Experimental Range in New Mexico has established proof-of-concept that free-ranging beef cattle and sheep can be controlled behind a static VB\™. Also it was shown that animals could be moved over a landscape in much the same way rotational grazing systems currently move animals, but without the need for conventional fences. Current field trials are focused on optimizing the protocol to gather animals into a corral using a moving VB\™. Research continues on miniaturizing the physical size of the DVF\™ device worn by the animal and reducing power needed from batteries and solar energy. Once DVF\™ is commercialized, it is realistic to envision free-ranging animals as programmable harvesting tools capable of providing prescribed vegetation utilization based on ecological goals while simultaneously providing adequate nutrition for optimum animal production.}, keywords = {control, livestock, VBS, virtual boundaries}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {50530, title = {Understanding Interactions Between Autonomous Animal Control and Temperament When Cattle are Subejcted to Virtual Fencing Applications}, booktitle = {Horizons in Livestock Sciences Conference}, year = {2005}, month = {October 2-5, 200}, pages = {23}, address = {Queensland, Australia}, abstract = {Virtual fencing has the potential to control grazing livestock. Understanding and refining the cues that can alter behavior is an integral part of autonomous animal control. A series of tests have been completed to explore the relationship between temperament and control. Prior to exposure to virtual fencing control the animals were scored for temperament using flight speed and a sociability index using contact logging devices. The behavioural response of 30, Belmont Red steers were observed for behavioural changes when presented with cues prior to receiving an electrical stimulation. A control and four treatments designed to interrupt the animal{\textquoteright}s movement down an alley were tested. The treatments consisted of sound plus electrical stimulation, vibration plus electrical stimulation, a visual cue plus electrical stimulation and electrical stimulation by itself. The treatments were randomly applied to each animal over five consecutive trials. A control treatment in which no cues were applied was used to establish a basal behavioural pattern. A trial was considered completed after each animal had been retained behind the cue barrier for at least 60 sec. All cues and electrical stimulation were manually applied from a laptop located on a portable 3.5 m tower located immediately outside the alley. The electrical stimulation consisted of 1.0 Kv of electricity. Electric stimulation, sound, and vibration along with the Global Position System (GPS) hardware to autonomously record the animal{\textquoteright}s path within the alley were recorded every second.}, keywords = {animal control, controls, temperament, virtual fencing}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {50527, title = {Using animal behavior and electronics to controll free-ranging animal groups directional virtual fencing (DVM) - Proof-of-concept}, booktitle = {2005 Horizons in Livestock Sciences Conference}, year = {2005}, month = {2005}, abstract = {Improved animal distribution promotes ecologically sound landscape utilization. Diverse utilization patterns require active management of timing and duration of foraging. After 30 years of research, a patented methodology to reintroduce the art of low-stress herding husbandry using 21st century science awaits commercialization. Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF\™) melds cutting edge electronics with innate animal behaviors to control free-ranging animals without visible fences. The system compares an animal\’s location using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to a Virtual Center Line (VCL\™) after the VCL\™ location has been programmed into the device\’s Geographic Information System (GIS). A magnetometer in the DVF\™ device determines the animal\’s angle of approach to the nearest VCL\™. Bilateral ramped audio and electric stimulation cues increase in irritation intensity as an animal approaches the VCL\™ within a Virtual Boundary (VB\™). Cuing stops immediately once the animal turns away from the VCL\™. The type of cue, length of cuing and the side of the animal to which the cue is applied are all programmable. This flexibility offers the DVF\™ user many options to implement Prescription Stocking (RxS\™). The first autonomous field test of DVF\™ occurred on April 2, 2001. Since then, our team has determined that DVF\™ can control animal groups behind static as well as moving VBs\™. Current research is focused on developing power efficient hardware with a small footprint coupled to wireless data transmission capabilities in a potentially patentable solar powered head mounted device. With DVF\™ the art of animal husbandry is integrated with cutting edge technology.}, keywords = {behavior, Directional, electronics, fencing, free-ranging, virtual}, author = {D.M. Anderson and C.S. Hale and B. Nolen and Kris Havstad} } @article {50528, title = {Virtual Fencing - Automated Animal Control in the 21st Century}, volume = {1}, year = {2005}, month = {June 2005}, pages = {13}, chapter = {13}, abstract = {Controlling free-ranging animal distribution is among the most challenging jobs a producer faces when managing livestock. Melding of time-tested animal husbandry practices with cutting-edge technological advances and scientific breakthroughs coming from the disciplines of range, animal and ethological sciences.}, keywords = {animal, automated, control, fencing, virtual}, url = {/files/bibliography/05-012.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {50622, title = {Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF-trademark)}, journal = {Grassroots, Newsletter of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa}, volume = {4}, number = {1}, year = {2004}, month = {February 1, 2004}, pages = {10-13}, abstract = {A novel method is described for controlling free-ranging cows using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and electromechanical cues delivered through a device termed Directional Virtual Fencing (DVFTM). The device is described as a tool to control animal movement, as well as a device to move groups of animals over the landscape in a manner humane to both instrumented and non-instrumented animals.}, url = {/files/bibliography/03-052.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {50623, title = {Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF{\texttrademark})}, booktitle = {57th Annual Meeting of Society for Range Management}, year = {2004}, month = {January 24-30, 2}, pages = {Abstract No. 6}, address = {Salt Lake City, UT}, abstract = {Previous methods for promoting uniform spatial distribution of animals across a landscape have produced mixed results, yet none provide opportunities for real-time management. With Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF)(TM) prescriptive real-time animal management is imminent. The animal-mounted DVF(TM) device combines Global Positioning System (GPS) technology with electro-mechanically produced cues controlled by proprietary algorithms in the device{\textquoteright}s Central Processing Unit (CPU) to control animals in real time. The GPS component in the DVF(TM) device gives animal position on the landscape, while a Geographic Information System (GIS) allows preprogrammed, latitude-longitude pairs to define a Virtual Center Line (VCL)(TM) inside a Virtual Boundary (VB)(TM)). If the VB(TM) is penetrated by an instrumented animal, the direction of its head with respect to the VCL(TM) determines to which side of the animal the independently programmable, left and right side cues will be delivered to elicit the shortest turning direction for movement away from the VCL(TM) with the least cuing stress. Cue intensity is ramped from low at the VB(TM) perimeter to high at the VCL(TM). Should the animal fail to respond appropriately, cuing can be programmed to stop. Cow heart rate is elevated during cuing; however, the increase is only transitory as evidenced by animals quickly returning to graze in the opposite direction following cuing. Preliminary data from a small herd (n = 6) suggests not every animal in a group will need to wear a DVF(TM) device if the goal is to control the group{\textquoteright}s distribution across a landscape.}, keywords = {fencing, Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System, virtual, virtual boundary}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Price, M.A. and E.L. Fredrickson and B. Nolen and C.S. Hale and Kris Havstad} } @article {50621, title = {Flocks and herds or flerds--the choice is yours}, journal = {Grassroots, Newsletter of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa}, volume = {14}, number = {2}, year = {2004}, month = {June 2004}, pages = {16-22}, abstract = {A novel approach for managing mixed species stocking groups involves bonding small ruminants (sheep and goats) to cattle; so, when the animal species are put into a pasture, they remain in close proximity to each other, forming what has been termed a flerd. This close association offers several management benefits, including: protection of the smaller ruminants from canine predation, ease in locating animals at pasture, reducing the need for fencing and utilizing the landscape more uniformly than do flocks and herds. The major emphasis of the manuscript is presenting a {\textquoteright}how to{\textquoteright} approach to creating and maintaining flerds.}, keywords = {bonding, cattle, creating and maintaining, flerds, flocks, herds, ruminants}, url = {/files/bibliography/04-080.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {50619, title = {A moving virtual boundary (VB trademark)}, booktitle = {6th Symposium of the Natural Resources of the Chihuahuan Desert}, year = {2004}, month = {October 15, 2004}, pages = {Abstract p. 16}, address = {Alpine, Texas (Sul Ross State University)}, abstract = {Distributing free-ranging animals across a landscape to facilitate proper forage utilization is universally challenging to range livestock managers. By combining Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, Geographical Information System (GIS) methodology and a practical knowledge of animal behavior, we have developed a methodology for autonomously controlling free-ranging animals. Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF{\texttrademark}) uses programmable sensory cues administered at the proper time and in the correct location on the animal to keep animals within a Virtual Paddock (VP{\texttrademark}) delineated by a Virtual Boundary (VB{\texttrademark}). Using Arc GIS 9 Tracking Analyst software, the geospatial animal data were visually depicted to move within the VP as the north and south VB moved in tandem in time and space across the landscape. Being able to manage grazing pressure using DVF will provide Prescription Stocking (RxS{\texttrademark}) without the challenges wire fencing places on conventional rotational stocking strategies.}, keywords = {DVF, forage utilization, free-ranging animals, GIS, GPS, virtual boundary, virtual fencing}, author = {D.M. Anderson and E.L. Fredrickson and Kris Havstad and B. Nolen and Nayak, P. and C.S. Hale} } @proceedings {50620, title = {Representing spatially explicit Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF-trademark) data}, year = {2004}, month = {August 7-10, 200}, address = {San Diego, CA}, abstract = {

Distributing free-ranging animals across a landscape to facilitate proper vegetation utilization is universally challenging to resource managers. Combining GPS technology, GIS methodology, and animal behavior, we have developed a device that autonomously controls animal distribution without conventional wire fencing or herding. Directional Virtual Fencing (DVF) uses sensory cues administered at the proper time and in the correct location on the animal to keep animals within a Virtual Paddock (VP) that can move in time and space using programmable Virtual Boundaries (VB). Analyzing the resulting geospatial animal data obtained from the device using ArcGIS Tracking Analyst software provides essential information for understanding and subsequently managing animal distribution.

}, keywords = {animal, Directional Virtual Fencing, distribution, GIS, GPS}, url = {http://training.esri.com//files/bibliography/index.cfm?event=general.recorddetail\&id=33833}, author = {D.M. Anderson and B. Nolen and E.L. Fredrickson and Kris Havstad and C.S. Hale and Nayak, P.} } @conference {50737, title = {Fluorometry as a tool for real-time botanical analysis}, booktitle = {VIIth International Rangeland Congress}, volume = {20}, year = {2003}, note = {Published in special section of Journal of Range and Forage Science--additional abstracts--from VIIth International Rangeland Congress, Africa}, month = {July 26, 2003}, pages = {132}, abstract = {Determining the botanical composition of forage and free-ranging animal diets is essential for accurate rangeland management and optimum economic returns. Multidimensional fluorometry offers a unique, real-time optical approach for accurately determining the composition of plant materials based on their chemical properties. By focusing on electronic transitions between 190 and 800 nm, specific chemical structures within dietary extrusa and fecal matter can be determined using trainable intelligent algorithms. During November 1991 we began investigating fluorometry as a tool to evaluate both pre- and post-digested plant materials. In the ensuing 12 years, light sources such as lasers and xenon arc lamps have been successfully used to excite fluorescence from plant and fecal extracts in both polar and nonpolar solvents. Unique spectral signatures in the blue, green and red regions of the visible spectrum were obtained. Prior research has concentrated on the acquisition and post-processing of excitation/emission matrices obtained from individual plant species as well as postdigested plant materials. Similarities have been shown among different plants within the same species of grass, forb and shrub as well as differences among grasses, forbs and shrubs. Statistical differences have also been found among simple diets containing varying amounts of one of the components. Previous research suggests fluorometry can become a promising method to differentiate between both pre- and postdigested plant materials. Current research using intelligent algorithms such as neural net processing to characterize three-dimensional spectral signatures among plants, including some poisonous to livestock, will be discussed.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and E. Parker and M. Ralphs and Gray, P. and G.D. Rayson and Richard E. Estell and Daniel, D. and E.L. Fredrickson and Kris Havstad and Wagner, J.} } @proceedings {50738, title = {Managing stocking density in real-time}, year = {2003}, month = {July 26-August 1}, pages = {840-843}, address = {Durban, South Africa}, abstract = {Individual prescription animal management will soon be possible by combining electronics and animal behavior. Once a proper stocking rate has been established, controlling stocking density and ultimately forage utilization is a manager{\textquoteright}s second biggest challenge. Of the multifaceted tools and techniques used to alter animal distribution, none offer the unique possibilities of Virtual Fencing (VF). VF combines Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and electro-mechanically produced bilateral cues in a new paradigm to control free-ranging animal location and direction of movement in a humane and reproducible manner in real-time. The only ground-based hardware is the device worn by the animal in which a central processing unit (CPU) uses Radio Frequency (RF) signals captured from GPS satellites to determine the animal{\textquoteright}s location. Geographically referenced virtual boundaries (VB) programmed into the unit{\textquoteright}s Geographic Information System (GIS) are combined with the GPS data to determine when a VB has been penetrated and at what angle. When this occurs, algorithms in the CPU determine to which side of the animal the fail-safe programmable repertoire of cues, having a range of intensities, is to be applied to encourage the animal to move away from the VB using the least intense cues and shortest route possible. Programming the VB to move or surround individual animals, allows dispersal or gathering of animals autonomously. Proof-of-concept has been established using a neck saddle prototype. Equipment designs, attachment locations, heart rate changes arising from cuing and the use of individual electronic animal identification and cellular communication technologies with VF will be covered.}, url = {/files/bibliography/03-033.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and C.S. Hale and R. Libeau and B. Nolen} } @article {50961, title = {Animal control system using global positioning and instrumental animal conditioning}, year = {2001}, month = {May 15, 2001}, address = {USA}, abstract = {

A device worn externally (or parts of which may be inserted in the ear canal) by an animal which uses a programmable repertoire of bilaterally applied aversive stimuli for the autonomous control of an animal{\textquoteright}s location and direction of movement is disclosed. Electromagnetic signals and electro-mechanical hardware are activated through a dedicated, embedded computer system, that allows a cascade of one or more aversive stimuli, normally acoustic and/or electrical stimulation, to be bilaterally applied to either the right or left side of an animal as a cue to change its location through a specific direction of movement. Aversive stimuli are programmed to be administered only when an animal penetrates a predetermined boundary. The embedded computer uses satellite position system data to determine the animal{\textquoteright}s location with respect to the closest boundary line and then calculates when and to which side of the animal the repertoire of bilateral aversive stimuli is to be applied.

}, keywords = {animal conditioning, animal control, global positioning, instrumental, patent}, isbn = {US 6,232,880 B1}, url = {/files/bibliography/01-005/pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and C.S. Hale and Deck, R.E.}, editor = {U.S. Patent Office} } @conference {50962, title = {Fluorometry as a tool for determining botanical composition}, booktitle = {54th Annual Meeting of Society for Range Management}, year = {2001}, month = {February 2, 2001}, pages = {Abstract No. 10}, address = {Kailua-Kona, HI}, abstract = {Multidimensional fluorometry measurements offer a unique chemical approach for determining botanical composition of animal diets. By focusing on electronic transitions between 190 and 800 nm specific chemical structures within materials such as fecal matter and dietary extrusa can be determined in real time using simple "trainable" algorithms. In November 1991, we began investigating fluorometry as a tool to evaluate pre- and post-digested diets of free-ranging animals. During the ensuing nine years, a laser as well as some xenon arc lamps have been used to excite fluorescence from plant and fecal extracts in polar as well as non-polar solvents. Unique spectral signatures in the blue, green and red regions of the visible spectrum were obtained. Research to date has concentrated on the acquisition and post-processing of excitation/emission matrices. Results suggest the technique has the ability to discriminate differences among pre-digested grasses, forbs and shrubs as well as reveal similarities among different plants within a species. In addition, simple diets containing varying amounts of one of the components can be statistically separated using distinct peaks as well as the entire fluorescence data set. Current and future research using fluorometry will be discussed.}, keywords = {animal diets, botanical composition, chemical approach, fluorometry, measurements}, author = {D.M. Anderson and G.D. Rayson and Richard E. Estell and E.L. Fredrickson and Kris Havstad and Tisone, G. and Daniel, D. and L. W. Murray} } @conference {50960, title = {Managing animals within virtual boundaries}, booktitle = {54th Annual Meeting Society for Range Management}, year = {2001}, month = {February 2, 2001}, pages = {Abstract No. 9}, address = {Kailua-Kona, HI}, abstract = {Combining Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and electro-mechanically produced cues offers a new paradigm in controlling free-ranging animals. Preliminary tests using autonomously applied bilateral cues indicate the method is humane and reproducible when used to alter a beef cow{\textquoteright}s location and direction of movement. A central processing unit (CPU) within the device worn by an animal uses Radio Frequency (RF) signals captured from GPS satellites to determine the animal{\textquoteright}s location. Geographically referenced virtual boundaries (VB) are programmed into the unit{\textquoteright}s Geographic Information System (GIS). The device integrates these two data sets to determine the animal{\textquoteright}s location with respect to the closest VB. If a VB is penetrated, algorithms in the CPU determine to which side of the animal the programmable repertoire of cues is to be applied to encourage the animal to move away from the VB using the shortest route possible. The cues are administered in a fail-safe cascade fashion from least to most aversive and to only one side of the animal at a time depending on the animal{\textquoteright}s angle of approach to the VB. If a VB is programmed to move or surround individual animals, dispersal or gathering of animals is automated. The device can be used with individual electronic animal identification to further facilitate individual animal management. Proof-of-concept has been evaluated using neck saddle prototypes. Various device designs and attachment locations will be discussed. Combining electronics with animal behavior will make individual prescription animal management a commercial reality in the 21st century.}, keywords = {control, device designs, free-ranging animals, Global Positioning System, radio frequency, virtual boundaries}, author = {D.M. Anderson and C.S. Hale} } @proceedings {50963, title = {Virtual fencing - a prescription range animal management tool for the 21st century}, year = {2001}, month = {March 12-13, 200}, pages = {85-94}, address = {Aberdeen, Scotland}, abstract = {Optimum forage utilization requires herbivores to be moved periodically commensurate with the landscape{\textquoteright}s productivity. Stationary conventional fencing has been tried alone and with other tools and techniques to affect animal distribution and forage utilization; none consistently permit flexible management in real time. Virtual fencing has the potential to automate animal management and provide autonomous animal control. Virtual fencing systems require animals to wear an electronics package that includes hardware, software and an antenna to receive radio frequency (RF) signals. A patented virtual fence device is described that uses RF signals emanating from navigation satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS). These signals are used to locate the animal{\textquoteright}s geographic location and can be logged at programmable intervals of 1 second or more. They are used to build virtual fences that can be programmed to take any geometrical shape, manipulated in space and time and surround areas as wel as individuals. The unit{\textquoteright}s Geographic Information System (GIS) data continuously compares the animal{\textquoteright}s location and angle of approach to that of the closest virtual fence. Should an animal attempt to penetrate a virtual fence, algorithms within the unit{\textquoteright}s central processing unit determine the suite of programmable cues to apply to the animal{\textquoteright}s left or right side to maximize the animal{\textquoteright}s distance of separation from a virtual fence in the least amount of travel. The cues begin with the least and progresses to the most aversive, depending on the animal{\textquoteright}s proximity to the virtual fence. If the animal fails to respond at the highest level of cuing, the unit shuts down in a failsafe manner to prevent unnecessary stress to the animal.}, keywords = {automate animal management, autonomous animal control, Global Positioning System, radio frequency signals, virtual fencing}, url = {/files/bibliography/01-002.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {51127, title = {Would managing a flerd benefit your bottom line?}, journal = {Pastoral Memo-Southern Rangelands, Agriculture, Western Australia}, volume = {5}, number = {1}, year = {1999}, month = {1999}, pages = {26-27}, abstract = {

Reducing predation losses, cutting conventional fencing costs, eliminating unproductive search time to locate animals and promoting uniform utilisation of the vegetation resource fee all resource managers who practise mixed-species stocking. These four management challenges can be turned into management opportunities when coupled with the ability to modify small ruminant behaviour so they remain close to cattle under free-ranging conditions. Sheep and goat flocks normally forage separate from cattle herds. However, if small ruminants, preferably young animals, are socialised with cattle the adults will form one or more flerds, i.e. small ruminants that consistently remain close to cattle under free-ranging conditions.

}, isbn = {0726-9382}, url = {/files/bibliography/642.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {51204, title = {Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectra of herbaceous and woody pre- and post-digested plant material}, journal = {Animal Feed Science Technology}, volume = {70}, number = {4}, year = {1998}, month = {March 15, 1998}, pages = {315-337}, abstract = {

Filtrate from pre- and post-digested plant material was exposed to 355-nm pulsed laser light and the subsequent laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) was recorded. Similarities and differences among spectra from 20 materials are discussed. Each material was replicated once, dried, ground, and exposed to chloroform (CHC13) for 24 h. The material represented aged (1 to 18 years old) plants from different herbaceous (grasses and forbs) and woody plant life forms. Mean peak fluorescence recorded among materials differed (P \< 0.0001) in both wavelength and peak amplitude (counts) across the spectral range (387 to 788 nm). Peak fluorescence was evaluated within each of three arbitrary color categories, blue near 455 nm and red near 674 nm, while only 16 of the materials produced a green peak near 528 nm. In general, the blue and green fluorescence peaks were broad while the red peak was narrow. Mean peak counts were largest in the red range. Varying amounts of laser beam absorption occurred among the materials evaluated due to different concentrations of filtrate and different absorption efficiencies; therefore, amplitude data (counts) were not used to determine statistical differences among materials. To overcome difficulties attributed to the raw count data, red/blue, red/green and blue/green count ratios within replicates were calculated. Using all three count ratios in a multivariate analysis of variance, the 16 materials could be separated into nine different (P\<0.05) material groupings. The LIF technique may provide a reliable means to separate ground pre- and post-digested plant materials following further research into determining what fluorophores are producing the spectral signatures and how sample preparation affect peak wavelengths.

}, keywords = {botanical composition, fecal analysis, laser-induced fluorescence, plants}, doi = {10.1016/S0377-8401(97)00088-6}, url = {/files/bibliography/604.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and E.L. Fredrickson and Nachman, P. and Richard E. Estell and Kris Havstad and L. W. Murray} } @article {51203, title = {Pro-active livestock management--Capitalizing on animal behavior}, journal = {Journal of Arid Land Studies}, volume = {7S}, year = {1998}, month = {1998}, pages = {113-116}, abstract = {This paper describes a technique for modifying sheep and or goat behavior to reduce canine predation, management time and fencing requirements under mixed-species stocking. Procedures to modify behavior of individual animals are outlined. The concept involves bonding small ruminants to cattle to produce a cohesive group termed a flerd. A flerd acts as a single interdependent cohesive livestock unit under free-ranging conditions rather than as distinct flocks and herds coexisting in the same area.}, keywords = {behavior, canine predation, herds, livestock}, url = {/files/bibliography/98-002.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {51316, title = {Differences in ewe and wether behavior when bonded to cattle}, journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science}, volume = {47}, year = {1996}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, {\textcopyright} 1996. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591}, month = {1996}, pages = {201-209}, abstract = {

Under mixed stocking, both intra- and inter-species associations exist. Sheep normally do not associate with cattle when the two species are grazed together. However, sheep can be made to consistently stay close to (bond) and follow cattle if forced in close association with cattle at an early age for a period of time. The cohesiveness of this inter-species association under free-ranging conditions varies due to many factors, including sheep gender. Bonded wethers stay nearer to cattle than do bonded ewes. However, the distance of separation between bonded sheep groups and cattle groups during grazing increases over time. Though the mechanism(s) for these phenomena are not presently understood, keeping a few bonded wethers with bonded ewes may enhance the establishment and maintenance of consistently coherent range flerds (flocks + herds).

}, keywords = {cattle, grazing, predation, sheep, social grouping}, doi = {10.1016/0168-1591(95)00676-1}, url = {/files/bibliography/465.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richard E. Estell and Kris Havstad and Shupe, W. Larry and R. Libeau and L. W. Murray} } @article {51317, title = {The potential of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectra of sheep feces to determine diet botanical composition}, journal = {Small Ruminant Research}, volume = {21}, number = {1-2}, year = {1996}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, Copyright {\textcopyright} 1996. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09214488)}, month = {June 1, 1996}, pages = {1-10}, abstract = {

Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) peaks near 470 nm ({\textquoteleft}blue{\textquoteright}) and 650 nm ({\textquoteleft}red{\textquoteright}) from sheep feces treated with chloroform (CHCl3) displayed spectral signatures that varied with diet. Fecal samples were obtained rectally over 3 days in a replicated study consisting of four diets (treatments) fed to 16 Polypay and Polypay {\texttimes} Rambouillet lambs (four lambs per treatment). Basal diet consisted of tobosa (Pleuraphis mutica Buckley [formally Hilaria mutica (Buckl.) Benth.] hay with 0\% (control), 10\%, 20\% or 30\% tarbush (Flourensia cernua D.C.) added on a dry matter basis. Feces were dried at 60 {\textdegree}C, treated with chloroform and the extract from both crushed and intact fecal material was then excited by laser input at 355 nm. Tarbush leaves gave LIF only in the blue region of the spectrum. However, tobosa hay and all fecal pellets produced a bimodal LIF spectral distribution with a lower, broader peak feature in the blue region and a narrower well defined taller feature in the red region of the spectrum. Chloroform did not exhibit fluorescence peaks between 400 nm and 800 nm. As tarbush in the diet increased, so did the magnitude of counts in the blue region of the spectrum. The LIF red/blue intensity ratios appear to be more reliable than actual counts in differentiating feces of sheep fed tobosa diets containing differing amounts of tarbush. red/blue ratios decreased (P\< 0.05) linearly (P\< 0.005) for both crushed and intact sheep fecal pellets as the tarbush/tobosa ratio in the diet increased. Inconsistencies in count amplitudes and wavelengths in either one or both regions (red or blue) of the spectrum and in red/blue ratios (especially on Day 3 for crushed fecal samples) are discussed in terms of sample preparation procedures and sampling days. Our results suggest that further testing of the LIF technique is warranted using diets consisting of several species.

}, keywords = {botanical composition, diets, fecal samples, laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), sheep}, doi = {10.1016/0921-4488(95)00817-9}, url = {/files/bibliography/466.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Nachman, P. and Richard E. Estell and Ruekgauer, T. and Kris Havstad and E.L. Fredrickson and L. W. Murray} } @article {51434, title = {Benefits and costs in controlling sheep bonded to cattle without wire fencing}, journal = {Small Ruminant Research}, volume = {14}, number = {1}, year = {1994}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, Copyright \© 1993. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09214488)}, month = {June 1, 1994}, pages = {1-8}, abstract = {

Mixed grazing groups of IS bonded ewes and five cows consistently (100\%) remained together in one of two adjoining arid rangeland paddocks during each of three seasons beginning in September 1991. The paddocks were separated with only two strands of wire fence. The bottom wire being 0.7 m off the ground. In contrast, non-bonded ewes (controls) were found in the adjoining paddock without cattle 54\% of the time. This created a mean separation distance between non-bonded ewes and cattle of 977 m.\  Locating ewes in the non-bonded treatment required additional time, thus reducing management efficiency and increasing costs by approx. $0.10/hd/d. In a separate study begun in January 1992 an enduring bond between sheep and cattle was produced by confining 65 to 86 day-old lambs with cattle in pens for 55 d at a cost of approx. $0.511hd/d. Bonding may provide an economically viable alternative to conventional wire fencing on many properties as a means of controlling the spatial distribution of sheep under mixed grazing.

}, keywords = {distribution, free-ranging livestock, pen feeding, ranch economics, sheep behavior}, doi = {10.1016/0921-4488(94)90002-7}, url = {/files/bibliography/413.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Kris Havstad and Shupe, W. Larry and R. Libeau and J. N. Smith and L. W. Murray} } @conference {51468, title = {Effect of diet on physical properties of sheep feces}, booktitle = {Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1993}, month = {1993}, pages = {No. 97}, abstract = {Sheep feces{\textquoteright} physical properties were evaluated from two animals fed 100\% tobosa [Hilariamutica (Buckl.) Benth.] diets (HM) and two animals fed 70\% tobosa plus 30\% tarbush (Flourensiacernua D.C.) leaf diets (HM + FC). Preliminary data are presented from a randomized block design involving mature, ruminally cannulated wethers fed daily at 0700 and 1600 h and housed in metabolism facilities with ad libitum access to water and mineral blocks. Fecal samples were obtained from the rectum at 0700 h on days 31, 32 and 33 of the trial and immediately frozen at 0{\textdegree} C. Feces subsampled by day (5 pellets/animal) from two wethers per diet were thawed at room temperature and oven dried at 60{\textdegree} C. Water uptake of individual fecal pellets under vacuum was measured followed by dispersion of individual pellets in distilled water to determine particle size composition in a closed cascade system of soil sieves with an in-line filter. Effluent pH and conductance was determined. Means polled across pellets, days and animals with standard errors were calculated. Fecal pellet water uptake and pH for the HM diet was 248\% +/- 1.53 and 7.67 +/-0.03 compared to 223\% +/- 1.60 and 7.77 +/- 0.02 for the HM + FC diet, respectively. Effluent conductance (mv) for the HM and HM + FC diets was 25.3 +/- 1.51 and -31.2 +/- 1.23, respectively. Based on the mass of five size fractions equalling 100\% of the mass separated, 0.9 +/- 0.22, 8.3 +/- 0.43, 25.5 +/- 0.36, 22.9 +/- 0.37 and 42.3 +/- 0.75 percent of the fecal particles were retained on the 1.18, 0.60, 0.30, 0.150 and Whatman No. 4 sieves/filter, respectively, over both diets. Overall, the mass of 56 intact pellets compared to the mass resulting from summing the five particle size fractions resulted in a 12.2 +/- 1.1\% loss of material.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Kris Havstad and J. N. Smith and L. W. Murray} } @conference {51467, title = {Evaluating the potential for lambs to bond to heifers}, booktitle = {Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1993}, month = {1993}, pages = {No. 98}, abstract = {Since 1986, two bonded wether sheep on the Jornada Experimental Range (JER) have consistently stayed closer to cattle compared to ewe lambs of similar age and breeding. A joint USDA-ARS ewe-wether sibling study was begun in 1992 to investigate how gender may influence bonding cohesiveness. Purebred Polypay and 1/2 Rambouillet, 1/2 Polypay crossbred sheep were evaluated on the JER, Las Cruces, New Mexico, while purebred Rambouill and 1/4 Finn, 3/4 Columbia or 3/4 Targee crossbred sheep were handled under similar management on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, Idaho. Lambs were weaned at approximately 60 days of age. Immediately, seven lambs of the same gender and three yearling beef heifers were randomly allocated to one of six pens (three experimental units/gender), each approximately 675 m2 in size, for 60 days using previously described protocol. Pens had a lamb creep area while baled alfalfa in a common bunk was fed ad libitum along with water and mineral blocks. In a 4-h field trial 60 d post pen-confinement, the tendency for lambs to follow the heifers was evaluated by measuring separation of the two animal species and calculating means +/- standard errors to describe cohesiveness. At Las Cruces, wether lambs followed heifers closer (1.45 +/- 0.82 m) than ewe lambs (6.58 +/- 0.82 m; P = 0.001). Idaho lambs did not follow cattle as close as did JER lambs nor did they demonstrate a consistent cohesiveness to stay with cattle. In contrast to JER lambs, Idaho ewe lambs formed a closer association (18.94 +/- 2.87 m) to heifers compared to wethers (29.20 +/- 3.31 m). Lamb cohesiveness to heifers did not appear similar between siblings at either location.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and J.W. Walker and Kris Havstad and L. W. Murray} } @conference {51469, title = {Facilitating mixed-species management of sheep with cattle through bonding}, booktitle = {Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1993}, month = {1993}, pages = {No. 96}, abstract = {If sheep are managed together with cattle under free-ranging conditions, the two species do not consistently stay together. However, by confining weaned lambs with cattle for 30 to 60 d, an affinity or bond develops that will endure over time. These bonded sheep will remain in close proximity to cattle under pasture conditions. Bonding research dating from 1985 is discussed with emphasis on how bonding has reduced coyote predation, eliminated additional time required to locate sheep under mixed-species stocking, acted as a nonwire fence to provide an alternative to conventional sheep-proof fencing and increased the spatial grazing pattern of free-ranging sheep without significantlymodifying sheep diets compared to nonbonded sheep. The cost to produce a bonded sheep using pen confinement in 1992 was approximately $0.55/hd/d.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Kris Havstad and Shupe, W. Larry and R. Libeau} } @article {51510, title = {An attempt to bond weaned 3-month-old beef heifers to yearling ewes}, journal = {Applied Animal Behavior Science}, volume = {34}, year = {1992}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, {\textcopyright} 1992. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591}, month = {1992}, pages = {181-188}, abstract = {

This study was conducted to determine if weaned younger heifers, averaging three months of age, would bond to sheep. To accomplish reciprocal bonding, 90-day-old heifers were penned for 80 d singly or in groups of three with two or five yearling ewes, respectively. Following 40 d and 80 d of pen confinement, the cattle and sheep were observed together while on pasture and interspecific distances were estimated at 15-min intervals over several consecutive hours. Single heifers followed and consistently stayed very close to sheep. However, if two or more heifers were together at pasture, the heifers would not consistently stay with the sheep. Therefore, the attachment of single heifers to sheep is believed to be due to social dependence. During observations when two or more heifers were together at pasture, the yearling ewes which had been penned together with the heifers usually followed the heifers. Additional observations made during this study suggest that yearling ewes will form an attraction and follow cattle when at pasture after having been penned with them for 80 d.

}, doi = {10.1016/S0168-1591(05)80066-8}, url = {/files/bibliography/378.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and J. N. Smith and Shupe, W. Larry and L. W. Murray} } @conference {51511, title = {Determining botanical composition of free-ranging animal diets using physical properties of fecal material}, booktitle = {Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1992}, month = {1992}, pages = {P097}, abstract = {Techniques for sampling plants or animals to determine botanical composition of free-ranging livestock diets are tedious and costly. Estimates of diet selection using animal rather than agronomic techniques should provide the most accurate data for management of range livestock. Microhistological analysis of masticate and fecal material has been used extensively to determine diet quality in free-ranging herbivores. However, the major limitation with procedures requiring microscopic analysis is the time required for training, preparation and identification. We propose that physical properties of fecal material, including water adsorption and particle size distribution, may be useful in identifying animals within a species with higher proportions of browse in their diets. Preliminary analyses of dried Angora goat feces collected from animals housed in metabolism stalls indicates feces derived solely from monocots imbibed 63\% less water than feces from animals consuming a mixture of monocots and dicots. Data will be presented on additional analyses of other physical properties and more specific dietary components. Determination of inexpensive and rapid yet accurate techniques to separate herbivore diets into grasses, forbs and browse components would be a valuable tool for both scientific and management purposes.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Kris Havstad and Richard E. Estell and E.L. Fredrickson and L. W. Murray} } @article {51512, title = {Technical note: Automatic sorting of free-ranging cattle}, journal = {Journal of Range Management}, volume = {45}, number = {3}, year = {1992}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; www.rangelands.org.}, month = {1992}, pages = {312-314}, abstract = {

An automated system to weigh and sort free-ranging cattle was adapted to administer cottonseed pellets (41\% crude protein) to free-ranging cattle. The frequency with which animals drank water determined the interval between supplemental feedings. The automatic spacing of individual animals was the weakest link in the chain of events leading to the sorting of cattle into groups to administer treatments. Periodically during the study, free-standing water was available due to above-average precipitation. This resulted in an inconsistent supplementation schedule because animals did not have to return through the maze to drink water. Single herd management eliminated potential pasture-treatment confounding but accentuated individual animal behavior which resulted in a range of supplement intakes and drinking water patterns.

}, keywords = {automation, body weight, cattle, cattle feeding, cottonseed protein, dietary supplements, drinking, free range husbandry, sorting, weight determination}, url = {/files/bibliography/379.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and R. R. Rouda and L. W. Murray and Pieper, Rex D.} } @conference {51553, title = {Browsing arid rangeland shrubs under multispecies management strategies}, booktitle = {IV International Rangeland Congress}, year = {1991}, month = {1991}, pages = {188}, abstract = {The deciduous shrub tarbush (Flourensiacernua DC.) grows on fertile clay loam soils of 5 to 6 x 106 ha of North America{\textquoteright}s Chihuahuan Desert. Blooming tarbush is toxic to ruminants, whereas vegetative tarbush can be safely browsed. Under conventional management strategies tarbush seldom exceeds 15\% of free-ranging animal diets. In an attempt to defoliate tarbush cattle, sheep, Spanish goats and Angora goats (8:20:17:2; 23 AU/ha) were used to stock eight 0.6 ha paddocks, four at a time, for 8 to 9 days during vegetative growth between August and September 1989. Mean tarbush canopy cover, estimated using line-point transects, was 17\% and 11\% before and after stocking, respectively. Daily tarbush defoliation was monitored on 120 plants randomly chosen among the eight paddocks. In addition, 20 tarbush plants, adjacent to the paddocks, were hand-harvested and -separated. Mean annual tarbush leaf, flower and twig production was 385 kg/ha. Individual tarbush plant defoliation ranged from 5 to 99\%. Cattle refused to browse only tarbush and were the first animal species removed due to a lack of other available forage. Sheep consistently lost liveweight (2.3 to 3.0 kg/hd) and body condition (0.8 unit) regardless of paddock. Goat body condition did not change overall. In four of the paddocks, Spanish goats gained 0.5 kg/ha while Angoras lost 1.4 kg/hd. Goat liveweight in the remaining four paddocks did not change (P > 0.05). Overall, 48, 67, 82 and 84\% of cattle, sheep, Spanish goat and Angora goat diets were tarbush, respectively. Short intervals of high-density multispecies stocking reduced tarbush foliage. However, unique plant and animal differences existed which affected tarbush use.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Gibbens, Robert P. and Clarence V. Hulet and Kris Havstad and Richard E. Estell} } @conference {51554, title = {Defoliating tarbush under multispecies management}, booktitle = {4th US/Mexico Border Conference on Recreation, Parks and Wildlife}, year = {1991}, month = {May 1-3, 1991}, abstract = {Tarbush (Flourensiacernua DC.) is a native, perennial, deciduous, warm-season shrub that grows on fertile clay loam soils of the Chihuahuan Desert. Blooming tarbush has been shown to be toxic to ruminants; however, vegetative tarbush can be safely browsed. Under conventional grazing strategies tarbush seldom exceeds 13\% of free cattle, sheep and domestic goat diets. Past management practices have encouraged elimination of tarbush by mechanical or chemical means. In an attempt to increase tarbush defoliation, cattle, sheep and Spanish and Angora goats (8:2017:2; 23 AU/ha) were combined to stock 8 0.6 ha paddocks, 4 at a time, over 28 d. Animals were periodically observed to document diets using a modified bite-count technique. Mean annualtarbush leaf, flower and twig production was 385 kg/ha based on 20 plants adjacent to the paddocks that were harvested and separated. Some tarbush received detectable use within the first 48 hours. Defoliation on 120 randomly chosen, individual plants ranged from 5 to 99\%. The mean vegetative position of the eight paddocks was 30\% grasses, 6\% forbs and 11\% shrubs other than tarbush. Sheep lost weight (2.3 to 3.0 kg/hd) and body condition (0.8 units), regardless of paddock. Goat body condition did not change overall. Overall, cattle, sheep and Spanish and Angora goat diets were 48, 67, 82 and 84\% tarbush, respectively. Short intervals of high-density multispecies stocking reduced tarbush foliage. No health problems were observed in any of the animal species. However, unique plant and animal differences existed which affected tarbush use.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Gibbens, Robert P. and Clarence V. Hulet and Kris Havstad and Richard E. Estell} } @article {51601, title = {Diet selection of bonded and nonbonded free-ranging sheep and cattle}, journal = {Applied Animal Behavior Science}, volume = {26}, year = {1990}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, Copyright {\textcopyright} 1990. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591)}, month = {1990}, pages = {231-242}, abstract = {

Compared with monospecies stocking, numerous studies substantiate that multispecies stocking can efficiently increase use within and among the mosaic pattern of rangeland plant life forms. However, multispecies stocking may fail to bring anticipitated biological and financial results because of severe small ruminant losses, often because of coyote (Canis latrans) predation. Previously published data have demonstrated that when young lambs are bonded to cattle, they will follow cattle under free-ranging conditions. This close association under free-ranging conditions has been shown to reduce coyote predation on lambs. However, in addition to protection, lambs that stay with cattle may have their diet selection influenced. Differences between cattle and sheep diets were estimated using microhistological analysis of heifer and lamb feces. The data indicated differences between pastures, animal species, and bonded and non-bonded lamb diets. Lambs bonded to cattle grazed 7\% more grass, 5\% fewer forbs and 4\% fewer shrubs between April and June than non-bonded lambs. Cattle diets were not influenced by either bonded or non-bonded lambs grazing in the same pasture and averaged 57\% grass, 35\% forbs and 8\% shrubs. In contrast, bonded sheep diets averaged 35\% grass, 59\% forbs and 5\% shrubs. The relatively large differences between heifer and lamb diets, and the relatively small differences between bonded and non-bonded lamb diets, do not negatively impact the potential benefits to be gained from multispecies stocking using bonded sheep. Managing bonded sheep with cattle under free-ranging conditions may result in more uniform spatial use of the vegetation than would occur if either species were managed alone.

}, doi = {10.1016/0168-1591(90)90139-5}, url = {/files/bibliography/352.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and Hamadeh, S.K. and J. N. Smith and L. W. Murray} } @article {51648, title = {Cattle liveweight sampled on a continuous vs. intermittent basis}, journal = {Livestock Production Science}, volume = {23}, year = {1989}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, Copyright {\textcopyright} 1989. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03016226)}, month = {1989}, pages = {117-135}, abstract = {

The liveweight of a free-ranging cow is constantly changing. If she is weighed automatically upon entering a corral before drinking water, a liveweight profile results which can be used to manage her individual performance. Using a manual procedure and weighing the same cow every 28 days also results in a liveweight profile. To determine how the amount of information contained in the 2 weighing procedures differed, the same cows of an experimental herd were weighed using both procedures. The resulting data referred to 1281 manual and some 40 000 automatic weighings, which were then classified into the phenological stage of the grazed plants and the physiological stage of the cow. By assuming that a cow is biologically the same within a 7-day period, and with as little as 1 weeks{\textquoteright} data, an 11\% change in a cow{\textquoteright}s liveweight can be detected 90\% of the time with only one additional automatic weighing. Real changes in liveweight as little as 5\% can be detected at the same rate if more than a single weighing is observed. Therefore, automatic weighing not only can be used to estimate the effects of past management practices, but also can be useful in making sound day-to-day livestock management decisions on individual animals.

}, doi = {10.1016/0301-6226(89)90010-9}, url = {/files/bibliography/341.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Weeks, D.L.} } @proceedings {51647, title = {Stress and the Free-Ranging Animal, A Western Regional Research Publication}, number = {Research Report 646}, year = {1989}, month = {June 1990}, pages = {48 }, publisher = {New Mexico Agrcultural Experiment Station}, address = {Crystal Bay, NV}, abstract = {Grazed forages provide basic nutrition for most ruminant livestock and substantial wildlife populations in the United States. Grazed forages are important economically because over 35\% of the total nutritional requirements for United States beef cattle, sheep and goat populations are derived from this resource. Specific factors that effect productivity and health of domestic animals occupies the central focus of most management systems and form the basis of most current day research thrusts. These facts lend credence to the need for regional research focused on optimum and sustained production from rangelands. One method to foster regional cooperation is through regional projects such as Western Regional Project W-151 in which both state and federal research is focused on questions which not only have local but also regional importance. Regional projects normally operate within a 5-year time frame. Prior to the fifth year, the participating members make a decision on whether the project should be revised, if a new project should be submitted or if the regional research should simply be conducted under the guidelines of a continuing committee. In October 1983, the research locations participating in W-151 revised the then current project for the ensuing 5-year period (October 1, 1984 through September 30, 1989). The new regional project was given the title \"Utilization of range forage for rangeland and domestic ruminant animal production.\" Two main objectives formed the basis for this project. The first focused on activities of free-ranging livestock as they relate to livestock production efficiency and its impact on the standing crop. The second objective involved assimilating current knowledge into livestock production models for evaluating management strategies and identifying research needs.}, keywords = {free-ranging livestock, impact, management strategies, production, stress}, url = {/files/bibliography/719.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Kris Havstad and Hinds, F.C.} } @proceedings {51706, title = {Behaviour modification in sheep to reduce canine predation and facilitate grazing with cattle}, volume = {II}, year = {1988}, month = {1988}, pages = {427-430}, address = {Jhansi, India}, abstract = {

Benefits of multispecies grazing are often overshadowed by ineffective predator control programs (Baker 1985). The coyote (Canis latrans) is probably one of north America{\textquoteright}s most versatile predators and continues to present one of the greatest challenges to United States sheep and goat producers (Green 1987). These producers have had varying degrees of success using steel traps, poisoned baits, calling and shooting, aerial gunning, guarding animals (primarily dogs) and electrified fences, used singly or in combination. During 1983, 63 of 144 sheep died while managed under free-ranging conditions on the Jornada Experimental Range, most were killed by coyotes (Hulet et al. 1987b).

}, url = {/files/bibliography/326.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and J. N. Smith and Shupe, W. Larry and L. W. Murray} } @article {51704, title = {Response of bonded and nonbonded sheep to the approach of a trained border collie}, journal = {Applied Animal Behavior Science}, volume = {21}, number = {3}, year = {1988}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, Copyright {\textcopyright} 1988. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591)}, month = {1988}, pages = {251-257}, abstract = {

Intra- and interspecific association of cattle and bonded or nonbonded sheep was observed under free-ranging conditions preceding, during and following the approach of a trained border collie dog. A bonded sheep is one which consistently stays in close proximity to cattle as a result of a continuous close association between the two species, which began when the sheep was a young lamb. The dog treatment provided insight into the response of livestock to an aggressive, threatening canine. Sheep bonded to cattle remained together as one interspecific group when threatened by the dog. Interspecific space decreased and the sheep positioned themselves among the cattle and away from the dog. Cattle aggression, i.e. kicking and charging the dog, was only observed when the dog approached the heifers. Nonbonded sheep and cattle reacted as two distinctly independent intraspecific groups. The nonbonded sheep reduced their intraspecific space and moved away from the cattle when threatened by the dog. The protection that bonded sheep receive from cattle appears to result from the close association with the cattle, which poses a threat to predators.

}, doi = {10.1016/0168-1591(88)90114-1}, url = {/files/bibliography/325.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and Shupe, W. Larry and J. N. Smith and L. W. Murray} } @conference {51705, title = {Response of bonded and unbonded sheep to the approach of a trained border collie}, booktitle = {41st Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1988}, month = {1988}, pages = {187}, abstract = {Intra-and interspecific association of young cattle and yearling ewes bonded or nonbonded to cattle was observed under free-ranging conditions preceding, during and following the approach of a trained border collie dog. The dog treatment provided insight into the response of livestock to an aggressive, threatening canine. Sheep bonded to cattle remained together as one interspecific group when threatened by the dog. Interspecific space decreased and the sheep positioned themselves among the cattle and away from the dog. Bovine aggression, ie., kicking and bunting at the dog, was only observed when the dog approached the heifers. Nonbonded sheep and cattle reacted as two distinct intraspecific groups. The ovines reduced their intraspecific space and moved away from the bovines when threatened by the dog. The protection which bonded sheep receive from cattle appears to result from the close association with the cattle which pose a threat to predators.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and Shupe, W. Larry and J. N. Smith} } @article {51703, title = {Seasonal stocking of tobosa managed under continuous and rotation grazing}, journal = {Journal of Range Management}, volume = {41}, number = {1}, year = {1988}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; www.rangelands.org.}, month = {January 1988}, pages = {78-83}, abstract = {

Tobosa (Hilaria mutica [Bucks.] Benth.) was seasonally grazed with cattle under high-density (2.1 to 5.1 animal unit/hectare [AU/ ha]) rotation and low-density (0.33 and 0.39 AU/ha), continuous stocking in 1980 and 1981, respectively. Tobosa leaf and culm color were used to evaluate forage quality. At the end of the 1980-81 growing seasons, crude protein was highest in green tobosa (8.4\%) and lowest in gray tobosa from the previous seasons (4.7\%). Grazing strategies did not influence the proportion of green tobosa within the standing crop; however, flexible rotation produced a more uniform use of green tobosa within the tell when compared to grazing with fixed intervals between rotations. Grazing patterns result from improper utilization of green tobosa which in future years will senesce into gray colored tobosa that composed 46-91\% of the standing crop. In this study, flexible rotation of cattle among paddocks, based on a 30-35\% reduction of tobosa standing crop height, reduced gray tobosa within the standing crop more than did continuous stocking. Total heifer siveweight gain per ha in 1980 and 1981, respectively, was 43 and 24\% less under continuous stocking compared to rotation grazing management.

}, keywords = {heifer average daily gain, seasonal grazing strategies, standing crop quality, tobosa utilization}, doi = {10.2307/3898796 }, url = {/files/bibliography/323.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {51759, title = {Bonding of young sheep to heifers}, journal = {Applied Animal Behavior Science}, volume = {19}, year = {1987}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, {\textcopyright} 1987. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591}, month = {1987}, pages = {31-40}, abstract = {

Rambouillet X Polypay lambs, averaging 45, 62 and 90 days of age, were penned with 8-9-month-old heifers for 60 days. Following 30 and 60 days of pen confinement, the treated and control lamb-heifer groups were observed in a 120-ha paddock for interspecific and intraspecific aggregation or dispersion; i.e. cross species bonding. Interspecies distances averaged\  <= 20 m in the treated groups vs. 600-1000 m in controls. Interspecific distance was not different between 45 and 90-day-old lambs. Treated lambs followed any heifer(s) which tolerated sheep. Bonding was poorly developed (lambs and heifers were widely separated) within the 62-day-old lamb-heifer group, possibly because two heifers periodically physically abused the lambs by butting and kicking them. It was concluded that 45 90-day-old lambs can be successfully bonded to cattle by penning the two animal species together for a period as short as 30 days.

}, doi = {10.1016/0168-1591(87)90200-0}, url = {/files/bibliography/308.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and J. N. Smith and Shupe, W. Larry and L. W. Murray} } @proceedings {51758, title = {Direct measures of the grazing animal{\textquoteright}s nutritional status}, year = {1987}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; http://www.rangelands.org}, month = {1987}, pages = {40-57}, address = {Boise, ID}, abstract = {Accurate, precise, rapid and cost effective procedures must characterize the techniques used to measure an animal{\textquoteright}s nutritional status. The classical information on the grazing animal{\textquoteright}s nutritional status has been determined by monitoring the chemical composition of the standing crop, the botanical and chemical composition of diets using esophageally fistulated animals, and the use of physical measurements including liveweight. Tissue and body fluid analyses for the diagnosis of nutritional problems have been stimulated by the development of automated equipment. Techniques that use body condition scores, based on a visual appraisal or external palpation for subcutaneous fat, correlate well with stored energy in the animal. Body condition correlates with reproductive efficiency and milk production. Prepartum condition can be used to effectively manage fat and thin livestock according to their nutritional needs for optimum sustained production. To understand and accurately manage the complex relationships that exist at the plant-animal interface, no single measure will be adequate to describe {\textquoteright}the nutritional status of grazing animals. However, body condition scores should be considered as a cost- effective tool that can be used by both the producer and researcher.}, url = {/files/bibliography/305.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @conference {51757, title = {Effectiveness of cattle in protecting lambs from coyote predation}, booktitle = {40th Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1987}, month = {1987}, pages = {2}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and J. N. Smith and Shupe, W. Larry} } @article {51756, title = {Heifer disposition and bonding of lambs to heifers}, journal = {Applied Animal Behavior Science}, volume = {19}, year = {1987}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, {\textcopyright} 1987. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591}, month = {1987}, pages = {27-30}, abstract = {

Abusive and non-abusive (tolerant) heifers were individually identified during pen confinement with young sheep. Physical aggression by abusive heifers toward lambs included butting and kicking. Two groups of three 75-day-old lambs confined with tolerant heifers developed a bond after 20 days and a strong bond after 55 days. However, three lambs confined with abusive heifers were not bonded at 20 days, but formed a satisfactory bond with the cattle after 55 days as the cattle became more tolerant of the lambs. During pen confinement, lambs with abusive heifers spent 41\% of the time in a creep area away from heifers. In contrast, lambs in two tolerant lamb-heifer groups spent only 15\% of their time in the creep area. Heifers which are abusive to lambs should be identified and removed from lamb heifer groups if bonding is to be accomplished consistently and efficiently.

}, doi = {10.1016/0168-1591(87)90199-7}, url = {/files/bibliography/307.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Clarence V. Hulet and J. N. Smith and Shupe, W. Larry and L. W. Murray} } @conference {51808, title = {Cattle and sheep activities under simultaneous stocking of arid rangeland}, booktitle = {39th Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1986}, month = {1986}, pages = {141}, abstract = {Within each of three seasons (i.e., dormancy, ephemeral and perennial growth) a series of observations were made on cattle and sheep between sunrise and sunset. Grazing, walking, standing, and lying events were recorded with an electronic, hand-held data logger that contained a real-time clock. Discussion of the data includes evaluating the locations within the paddock where the various activities took place and the implications this type of data has in developing mixed species grazing strategies.}, keywords = {activities, arid rangeland, cattle, sheep, simultaneous stocking}, author = {D.M. Anderson and J. N. Smith and Clarence V. Hulet} } @conference {51806, title = {Time budgets of free-ranging cattle}, booktitle = {39th Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1986}, month = {1986}, pages = {142}, abstract = {Vibracorders were used to periodically monitor periods of activity and inactivity on Hereford and Hereford-Santa Gertrudis crossbred cows grazing mesquite dune rangeland pastures 3,500 ha in size. Discussion of the data includes the correlation of periods of activity and inactivity with sunrise and sunset times. Implications of the data{\textquoteright}s use in designing grazing strategies and in conducting behavior research will be addressed.}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Richards, W.A.} } @article {51807, title = {Using digital pedometers to monitor travel of cows grazing arid rangelands}, journal = {Applied Animal Behavior Science}, volume = {16}, year = {1986}, note = {Reprinted with permission from Elsevier, {\textcopyright} 1986. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01681591}, month = {1986}, pages = {11-23}, abstract = {Cows grazing large (3000+ ha) arid rangeland paddocks were fitted with digital pedometers. Raw pedometer readings should be corrected for instrument and cow biases by calibrating the pedometers to individual cows because both cows and pedometers exhibited substantial variability. If routine procedures are followed for recording pedometer readings and adjusting them with the calibration information, digital pedometers appear to be a promising tool to monitor travel of grazing cows. In the context of this study, age of cow and pregnancy status had no apparent effect on the distance these mature cows traveled. However, genotype, external parasites and movement of the herd to a new paddock did have an influence. Because mean daily travel of grazing cows appears to be influenced by management decisions, the impact of various management alternatives de-serves further research. Bipedometered cows can contribute to such research, but this work shows that accurate comparisons of distances traveled require a substantial number of bipedometered cows.}, keywords = {cows, digital pedometers, grazing, monitor, rangelands}, url = {/files/bibliography/285.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Urquhart, N.S.} } @article {51870, title = {Improved esophageal fistula closure devices for cattle and sheep}, volume = {Agricultural Research Service, ARS-26}, year = {1985}, month = {1985}, pages = {20}, institution = {U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service}, abstract = {This publication describes a redesigned esophageal fistula plug and an esophageal cannula. These closure devices set forth state-of-the-art structural design, are more rugged, require minimal time to construct, and are relatively light when compared with previous esophageal fistula closure devices. In addition, the redesigned fistula closure devices are reliable in use and easily adapted to animal necks of various depths. The design of the fistula plug for use in cattle and sheep, along with the design for an esophageal cannula for use in cattle, are discussed and fabrication plans are included.}, keywords = {cannulas, esophageal fistula, livestock diets, plugs}, url = {/files/bibliography/273.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Mertz, D.L. and Franklin, W.E. and Manz, P.J.} } @proceedings {51872, title = {Livestock behavior--The neglected link in understanding the plant-animal interface}, year = {1985}, month = {1985}, pages = {116-148}, address = {Morrilton, AK}, abstract = {Mixed species grazing of cattle and sheep on rangeland has been advocated for over 40 years as ecologically and economically sound. Past research has concentrated mainly on the nutrition of the grazing animal. To improve the efficiency of animal production into the 21st century, understanding the behavior of grazing animals will be essential. Behavior of free-ranging animals is dynamic with respect to time and space, in addition to being influenced by both abiotic and biotic factors. The complexity in investigating this plant-animal system has led to the adaptation and/or development of many mechanical and electronic devices. With integration of several disciplines, an interdisciplinary team approach should provide major advances in understanding and developing sound grazing management practices. Initial results from a mixed-species grazing study involving nutrition and behavior began on the Jornada Experimental Range in 1984. Preliminary data suggest that cattle and sheep diets are complementary and that both animal species have unique temporal and spatial behavior patterns.}, keywords = {grazing study, Jornada Experimental Range, livestock behavior, plant-animal system}, url = {/files/bibliography/274.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and J. N. Smith and Clarence V. Hulet} } @conference {51871, title = {Liveweight, electronics and range cattle production}, booktitle = {38th Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1985}, month = {1985}, pages = {No. 152}, abstract = {With the use of mechanical and electronic equipment, it was possible, by exploiting an animal{\textquoteright}s need for water, to eliminate the stress often associated with the frequent weighing of individual cows while automating the entire process. It was then possible to evaluate how the frequency of obtaining individual cattle liveweights would influence the liveweight profile of a single herd of cows grazing arid southern New Mexico rangeland between July 1980 and February 1983. Approximately every 28 days, individual cows were weighed using conventional procedures. Between the 28 day weighings, each cow was automatically weighed before being allowed to drink water each time it entered a corral which contained drinking water. The liveweight profile obtained from the two weighing procedures differed (P<.10). If a cow was assumed to be biologically the same over seven consecutive days, it was possible to detect a change (P <.10) in her liveweight profile on the eighth consecutive day after automatic weighing began. Thus, the cause and effect of events involving a change in liveweight, such as parturition, were monitored and liveweight data became a tool rather than a product of management.}, keywords = {electronics, liveweight, production, range cattle, stress}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Weeks, D.L.} } @proceedings {51899, title = {The dynamics of liveweight in cattle grazing southwestern United States semiarid rangeland}, year = {1984}, month = {May 13, 1984}, pages = {402-403}, address = {Adelaide, Australia}, abstract = {This paper alleges that information necessary to make management decisions, such as calving date, and improved precision in estimating characteristics of an individual cow{\textquoteright}s liveweight profile can be obtained when liveweights taken frequently and automatically are compared to liveweights taken at greater than 27-day intervals using conventional methods. The measurement, liveweight, is used to evaluate biological and economic components of production animal agriculture. Changes in liveweight are dynamic, both diurnally and seasonally, mainly in response to body fluids anti fill (Anderson and Tietjen, 1982). To reduce variability in the mean liveweight between animals, past research has been directed to evaluate number of animals to be weighed, time of weighing, type and length of fasting, and the use of consecutive weighings (Hughes, 1976). Until the advent of single animal electronic scales and individual electronic animal identification, frequent weighing of free ranging cattle was not practical (Anderson, Landt and Salazar, 1981). Automatic liveweight data acquisition reduces the incidence of transcriptional and phonetic errors and variability in data taken during manual weighing arising from nervous animalsthat move excessively on the scale platform. Analyses in this paper compare liveweight data of free ranging cattle obtained when both infrequent manual and automatic weighings were recorded. Prior to drinking, automatically obtained individual liveweights were taken whenever animals entered the corral to drink water.}, keywords = {cattle, grazing, liveweight, management, semiarid rangeland}, url = {/files/bibliography/286.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Weeks, D.L.} } @proceedings {51931, title = {Diets obtained from esophageally fistulated heifers and steers simultaneously grazing semidesert tobosa rangeland}, volume = {34}, year = {1983}, month = {1983}, pages = {161-164}, abstract = {

The espohageally fistulated animal is a well recognized and accepeted range nutrition research tool. Esophageally fistulated animal studies have been conducted to evaluate diet differences between kinds and breed of animals, various grazing management strategies, different seasons of use, geographic locations, and diurnal diet patters. This study was conducted to determine how diet samples taken from one class of animals compare to diet samples taken from another class of animal within the same species. Cattle of mixed Bos taurus breeding prepresented by four esophageally fistulated mature steers and five esophageally fistulated growing heifers were used. the two groups were allowed to simultaneously graze tobosa (Hilaria mutica rangleland daily for a period of approximately 30 minutes between June 19 and June 29, 1979. The diet chemical components, crude protein and in vitro organic matter were analyzed. Analysis of the botanical components of the deit indicated five grasses thriteen forbs and three shrubs. This diversity in botanical composition contributed to a diet which had a mean grass, forb, and shrub content of 35, 51 and 14\%, respectively. Analysis of the dependent variables indicated that deits between the animal higher (p\<.10) in crute protein and three forb components. Heifer deits were 2.4\% higher (P\<.05) in crude protein compared to the steer diets. These results indicated caution should be used when extrapolating diet data collected from one class of animal to anohter class of animal within the same species. In addition to sex sex differences tarbush (Flourensia cernua), considered an invader shrub species, contrubuted to 92\% fo g of the diets in which botanical components were analyzed.

}, url = {/files/bibliography/227.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Jerry L. Holechek} } @article {51932, title = {A mechanical animal-powered cow spacer}, journal = {Journal of Range Management}, volume = {36}, number = {4}, year = {1983}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; www.rangelands.org.}, month = {July 1, 1983}, pages = {542-543}, abstract = {With the integration of electronic and mechanical devices, accurate, automatic data acquisition systems are used in agriculture research with animals. Fiby et al. (1979) reported that weight data were lost because cows bunched together as they moved over the weighing platform. To control the tendency for cattle to follow each other (Grandin, 1980) and alleviate bunching, we developed a low-cost, practical, easy-to-build, low-maintenance device to space individual animals as they move single file through a chute. The mechanical animal-powered cow spacer is one component of an automatic, electronic weighing/identification system now used to monitor individual weight changes of cattle grazing semidesert rangeland on daily basis (Anderson et al., 1981). The cow spacer would also be effective in commercial operations in which automatic spacing of animals is desirable.}, keywords = {animal-powered, automatic spacing, cow spacer, mechanical}, url = {/files/bibliography/228.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Mertz, D.L.} } @conference {51933, title = {Seasonal use of tobosa managed under continuous low-stock-density grazing (CLSDG) and rotational high stock density grazing (RHSDG)}, booktitle = {36th Annual Meeting, Society for Range Management}, year = {1983}, month = {February 14-18, }, pages = {No. 142}, address = {Albuquerque, NM}, abstract = {A 33.6- and 34.7-ha tobosa (Hilaria mutica) paddock was grazed during the summer of 1980 and 1981 for 168 and 107 days, respectively. The average stocking density (SD) with CLSDG was 0.36 A.U./ha compared to a 10-paddock, 1-herd RHSDG treatment which had an average (SD) of 3.47 A.U./ha. Stocking rates were similar in the CLSDG treatment (0.32 and 0.43 A.U./ha) and the RHSDG treatment (0.35 and 0.43 A.U./ha) during both years. Livestock management was similar during both years in the CLSDG treatment; however, the cattle were moved to sequential paddocks in the RHSDG treatment on fixed dates in 1980 while in 1981 the herd was moved based on the reduction in height of tobosa plants defoliated. Standing crop was clipped at ground level each year in both grazing treatments and in an ungrazed paddock. Animal liveweight was taken approximately every 42 and 31 days in 1980 and 1981, respectively. Total tobosa standing crop and heifer average daily gain was not significantly (P O.35) influenced by the grazing treatments. However, grazing significantly (PzO.0001) reduced the mean end-of-season tobosa standing crop approximately 58\%, regardless of grazing method, when compared to the ungrazed control (2068 + 244 kg/ha).}, keywords = {CLSDG, continuous low-stock-density grazing, RHSDG, rotational high-stock-density grazing, tobosa}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @proceedings {51990, title = {Drylot shrink of cattle grazing semidesert rangeland during February, May, July and October}, volume = {33}, year = {1982}, month = {July 7-9, 1982}, pages = {242-245}, abstract = {Selling cattle by liveweight is the preferred method for economic remuneration (Ares, 1942; Hall, 1977). As a research tool, liveweight is used extensively by scientists to describe treatment effects (Morris, 1967). Bone, tissue, pelage, various fluids and digestive tract contents (fill) combine to give liveweight. Even though bone, tissue and pelage vary between animals (Andersson et al., 1979; Murray, 1980), fill and fluids are the most variable components. Fill and fluids can change diurnally in response to forage quantity (Currie, 1975), forage quality (Ward, 1975), physiological status (Allen, 1946), handling method (Brownson, 1973), animal behavior (Arnold and Dudzinski, 1978) and weather (Fuquay, 1981), besides the interaction of one or more of these factors operating simultaneously (Hughes, 1976). There is not unanimous agreement on the best method to reduce variability in liveweight between animals due to differences in fill and fluids. Matches (1981) advocates a dry lot shrink when liveweights are used to evaluate short-term grazing experiments. Harris et al. (1967) on the other hand, indicate that gathering animals prior to morning grazing followed immediately by weighing will give precise liveweights. Time of day when weighing is done is important if variability in fill and fluids is to be kept to a minimum. Water intake for example can occur any time during a 24-hour period as documented by Low et al. (1981). This study was conducted to evaluate the liveweight profile resulting from a drylot shrink of cattle grazing semiarid rangeland during February, May, July and October.}, keywords = {cattle, drylot shrink, liveweight profile, semidesert rangeland}, url = {/files/bibliography/214.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Tietjen, G.} } @article {51991, title = {An esophageal fistula dilator}, journal = {Journal of Range Management}, volume = {35}, number = {1}, year = {1982}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; www.rangelands.org.}, month = {September 1982}, pages = {125-126}, abstract = {An esophageal fistula dilator is described. The tool can be used to exert an even pressure around the fistula perimeter to stretch a shrunken fistula and allow the successful insertion of a closure device larger in diameter than that of the original fistula. With this instrument, the process of enlarging the esophageal fistula is accomplished immediately in a time-saving, efficient manner compared to increasing the diameter of the fistula gradually by periodically increasing the diameter of the closure device.}, keywords = {description, esophageal fistula dilator}, url = {/files/bibliography/82-001.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Mertz, D.L.} } @proceedings {51992, title = {Seasonal grazing of semidesert tobosa rangeland in southern New Mexico}, year = {1982}, month = {November 10-12, }, pages = {137-142}, address = {College Station, TX}, abstract = {Research objectives included: (1) Evaluate tobosa (Hilaria mutica) managed under seasonal-continuous stocking with a low stock density and seasonal rotation stocking with a high stock density in arid southern New Mexico. (2) Characterize the average daily weight change in replacement Bos taurus and Bos taurus,Bos indicus crossbred replacement heifers managed under low stock density and high stock density grazing management.}, keywords = {rangeland, seasonal grazing, semideseret, tobosa}, url = {/files/bibliography/211.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @article {51989, title = {A two-step sampling technique for estimating standing crop of herbaceous vegetation}, journal = {Journal of Range Management}, volume = {35}, number = {5}, year = {1982}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; www.rangelands.org.}, month = {September 1, 198}, pages = {675-677}, abstract = {Standing crop of vegetation may be estimated by sampling foliar cover per unit area and then determining mass per unit of cover. Multiplying foliar cover per unit area by mass per unit of cover gives mass per unit area (standing crop). By this method, standing crop is estimated rapidly with low variance while minimizing the amount of actual harvesting required. Standing crop of both major and minor species can be estimated adequately without over sampling major species and under-sampling minor species. The technique is most easily applied to herbaceous plant communities of low stature.}, keywords = {herbaceous vegetation, standing crop estimation, two-step sampling}, url = {/files/bibliography/212.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Kothmann, M.M.} } @proceedings {52028, title = {Application of current livestock-range knowledge and emphasis needed for the future}, year = {1981}, note = {Reproduced by kind permission of CSIRO PUBLISHING, Melbourne Australia, from Forage evaluation: concepts and techniques: proceedings of a workshop entitled {\textquoteright}Forage evaluation and utilization - an appraisal of concepts and techniques{\textquoteright}held in Armidale, N.S.W., 27-31 October, 1980, under the auspices of the U.S./Australia Cooperative Science Program / editors: J.L. Wheeler, R.D. Mochrie. Published jointly by CSIRO Australia and the American Forage and Grassland Council, 1981.}, month = {1981}, pages = {535-542}, address = {Armidale, NSW, Australia}, abstract = {

In an attempt to document and evaluate the extent to which practices resulting from livestock and range research are being applied in the 17 Western states in the United States, 62 survey questionnaires were mailed during July, 1980, to extension specialists in livestock and range sciences. The questionnaire also contained a section in which the respondents were asked to indicate on specific questions whether information was available, unavailable or of limited interest. The limited number of responses made formal statistical inferences impossible. However, two trends were revealed: (1) accurate and precise information either does not exist or is not readily available on the extent to which specific practices in livestock and range sciences are being applied, and (2) extension specialists in the livestock and range sciences differ in their opinion on what topics require further research. A statistically analyzable questionnaire returned from an adequately sized, random sample of research, extension and producer personnel is needed if we are to determine the extent to which research information is being applied and to indicate the emphasis for future research.

}, keywords = {application, livestock research, livestock-range knowledge, range research}, url = {/files/bibliography/191.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @proceedings {52027, title = {Manipulating rangeland forage quality with the grazing animal}, year = {1981}, note = {Reproduced by kind permission of CSIRO PUBLISHING, Melbourne Australia, from Forage evaluation: concepts and techniques: proceedings of a workshop entitled {\textquoteright}Forage evaluation and utilization - an appraisal of concepts and techniques{\textquoteright}held in Armidale, N.S.W., 27-31 October, 1980, under the auspices of the U.S./Australia Cooperative Science Program / editors: J.L. Wheeler, R.D. Mochrie. Published jointly by CSIRO Australia and the American Forage and Grassland Council, 1981.}, month = {1981}, pages = {313-328}, address = {Armidale, NSW, Australia}, abstract = {

The positive balance that evolved between plants and grazing animals is not maintained under continuous grazing. Optimum production from the plant:grazing-animal system can be realized from only high leaf:stem and green:dead ratios in both the standing crop and animal diets. If we are to realize optimum production, we will need grazing methods in which time of year, frequency, and duration of defoliation can be controlled for individual plants and still permit high animal selectivity. By constructing more paddocks, stocking density can be increased and the extent of defoliation on individual plants can be manipulated. High individual animal production and proper individual plant defoliation can only be obtained under high stocking density if livestock are frequently moved between paddocks. To accomplish this, paddock design must ensure that animal stress and labor requirements are held to a minimum. However, the added flexibility derived from rotating animals among paddocks substantially increases the management required to obtain high animal performance and proper plant usage.

}, keywords = {continuous grazing, forage quality, grazing methods, optimum production, rotation grazing}, url = {/files/bibliography/193.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson} } @proceedings {52072, title = {Electronic weighing, identification and subdermal body temperature sensing of range livestock}, year = {1980}, note = {Reproduced by kind permission of CSIRO PUBLISHING, Melbourne Australia, from Forage evaluation: concepts and techniques: proceedings of a workshop entitled {\textquoteright}Forage evaluation and utilization - an appraisal of concepts and techniques{\textquoteright}held in Armidale, N.S.W., 27-31 October, 1980, under the auspices of the U.S./Australia Cooperative Science Program / editors: J.L. Wheeler, R.D. Mochrie. Published jointly by CSIRO Australia and the American Forage and Grassland Council, 1981.}, month = {October 27-31, 1}, pages = {373-382}, address = {Armidale, NSW, Australia}, abstract = {Individual animal weights can be obtained manually or automatically in a computer-compatible format with an electronic scale. If an electronic identification, subdermal body temperature sensing unit is interfaced with an electronic scale, the weight, identification and subdermal body temperature of individually identified animals can be obtained either manually or automatically, thus eliminating transcriptional and phonetic errors. Electronics can be used at remote locations despite extreme temperatures, dust and fluctuation in battery power. For research purposes, daily weight fluctuations, watering behavior and subdermal body temperature can be recorded continuously. When the system becomes commercially available, increased livestock production at a lower cost will be possible.}, keywords = {electronic weighing, identification, range livestock, subdermal body temperature}, url = {/files/bibliography/192.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and Landt, J.A. and Salazar, P.H.} } @article {52071, title = {A single bayonet gate for trapping range cattle}, journal = {Journal of Range Management}, volume = {33}, number = {4}, year = {1980}, note = {Permission to post articles granted by the Society for Range Management; www.rangelands.org.}, month = {July 1, 1980}, pages = {316-317}, abstract = {Single bayonet gates are effective in trapping range cattle inside a corral in which water is located. These gates require less time to construct than similar-size double-bayonet gates and contain about half as much material. Labor costs are second only to land charges in the high cost of today{\textquoteright}s livestock production (Maddox 1970). When labor-saving equipment is added to a livestock enterprise, personnel are released to concentrate efforts on other areas of the ranching operation. The efficiency of labor use is increased if animal behavior is considered in livestock management decisions. By capitalizing on an animal{\textquoteright}s need for water, one can trap cattle with a single bayonet gate, thus reducing the stress, time, and effort involved in conventional roundups. The technique involves setting up a one-way maze in a corral at which the animals will water. If all other gates into the corral are closed and a single bayonet gate is located at the entrance, cattle can be trapped as they enter to drink water. Double bayonet gates (Low and Hodder, 1976), triggers [Ward, 1958; Freeman (no date); Welchart and Gray (no date); Hughes, 1978], or crushes (Ernst, 1977), as they have been called, are not new to the livestock industry. The single-bayonet gate described in this paper requires less material for construction than double bayonet gates, yet does not reduce the gate{\textquoteright}s ability to trap and hold animals in a corral.}, keywords = {increased efficiency, range cattle, single bayonet gates}, url = {/files/bibliography/177.pdf}, author = {D.M. Anderson and J. N. Smith} }